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Sentiment

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Sentimentalism in painting

• N.I. Argunov
• V.L. Borovikovsky

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Sentiment

One of the characteristic features of Russian portrait art of this period was citizenship. The heroes of the portrait no longer live in their closed, isolated world. The consciousness of being necessary and useful to the fatherland, caused by a patriotic upsurge in the era of the Patriotic War of 1812, the flourishing of humanistic thought, which was based on respect for the dignity of the individual, the expectation of close social changes, rebuild the worldview of an advanced person.

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The portrait is characterized by realistic simplicity of expression, free from embellishment and idealization. The artist avoids painting with the hands, focusing on the model's face.

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Sentimentalism in architecture

The influence of this architectural style was especially reflected in park buildings, various "grottoes of solitude", mysterious pavilions hidden in the twilight, stylized as "wild" nature.

As a style, sentimentalism in architecture arose in the middle of the 18th century in stiff England.

The reflection of sentimentalism in Moscow architecture resulted in the creation of cozy mansions, sometimes asymmetrical in composition, but intimate in design and not very large. Manor art has always been based on the synthesis of such artistic styles as classicism and sentimentalism. A typical appearance of a Russian estate is a house with a portico among park greenery.

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Sentiment

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Sentimentalism in music

Adherents of Sentimentalism (J. J. Rousseau, A. E. M. Gretry, K. F. E. Bach, K. F. D. Schubart) assigned music a special place among other arts as a "language of feelings" capable of "touching hearts listeners"; they gave fundamental importance to the melody. Under the influence of sentimentalism, the figurative-genre palette of music was enriched, and a tendency to mix genres, contrary to classicist aesthetics, was outlined in the opera.

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Sentiment

Rousseau considered the melody as the main element of music, which, in combination with the word, sets off and emphasizes the natural expressiveness of human speech. It is in this property, in his opinion, that "the power of music over hearts is rooted." "The melody, imitating voice modulations, expresses complaints, cries of suffering and joy, threats, groans ... And its language, inarticulate, but lively, ardent, passionate, is a hundred times more energetic than speech itself." No "harmony effects" and tricks can replace the inherent gift of the melody to bring various feelings to the human heart. And, conversely, "if the feeling animates the simplest tunes, they become interesting."

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Prepared by: Daria Denisyuk

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Sentimentalism is a trend in Western European art that originated in the second half of the 18th century. The name comes from the Latin sentiment - "feeling". Sentimentalism in painting differed from other trends in that it proclaimed the life of a “little” person in the village as the main object, reflecting also the result of his thoughts in solitude. Civilized urban society, built on the triumph of reason, thus faded into the background.

The current of sentimentalism embraced such genres of art as literature and painting.

The history of sentimentalism

The named trend in art arose in the second half of the 18th century in England. James Thomson (England) and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (France) are considered to be its main ideologists in literature, who stood at the foundations. The development of the direction was also reflected in the appearance of sentimentalism in painting.

Sentimentalist artists in their paintings showed the imperfection of modern urban civilization, based only on a cold mind and not giving of great importance sensory perception of the world. During the heyday of this trend, it was believed that truth could be achieved not in the process of logical thinking, but with the help of emotional perception of the world around.

The emergence of sentimentalism was also an opposition to the ideas of the Enlightenment and classicism. The thoughts of the enlighteners of the previous period were completely revised and rethought.

Sentimentalism as a style in art existed until the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century, becoming widespread in Western Europe. At the dawn of its heyday, the direction appeared in Russia and was embodied in the works of Russian artists. At the beginning of the next century, romanticism became the successor of sentimentalism.

Features of sentimentalism

With the advent of sentimentalism in the painting of the 18th century, new subjects for paintings began to appear. Artists began to give preference to the simplicity of compositions on canvas, trying to convey not only high skill, but also lively emotions with their work. Canvases with landscapes showed the tranquility, serenity of nature, and portraits reflected the naturalness of the people depicted. At the same time, the paintings of the era of sentimentalism very often convey excessive moralizing, increased and feigned sensitivity of their heroes.

Sentimentalist painting

Painting created by artists in the described direction reflects reality, repeatedly enhanced through the prism of emotions and feelings: it is the emotional component in the paintings that is paramount. Representatives of this trend believed that the main task of art is to evoke strong emotions in the observer, to make them empathize and sympathize with the main character of the picture. This is how, according to sentimentalists, reality is perceived: with the help of emotions, not thoughts and reason.

On the one hand, this approach has advantages, but it is also not without disadvantages. The paintings of some artists cause the observer to be rejected by their excessive emotionality, sugaryness and the desire to forcefully evoke a feeling of pity.

Heroes of portraits in the style of sentimentalism

Despite the possible shortcomings, the features of the era of sentimentalism in painting make it possible to see the inner life of a simple person, his conflicting emotions and constant experiences. That is why during the 18th century, portraits became the most popular type of genre for paintings. The heroes were depicted on them without any additional interior elements and objects.

The most famous representatives of this genre were such artists as P. Babin and A. Mordvinov. The characters portrayed by them have a pacified state of mind that is well readable by the viewer, although without excessive psychologism.

Another representative of sentimentalism, I. Argunov, painted pictures with a different vision. The people on his canvases are more realistic and far from idealized. The main object of attention is the faces, while other parts of the body, for example, hands, may not be drawn at all.

At the same time, Argunov in his portraits always singled out the leading color as a separate spot for greater expressiveness. One of the prominent representatives of the trend was also V. Borovikovsky, who painted his paintings in accordance with the typology of English portrait painters.

Very often, sentimentalists chose children as heroes of paintings. They were portrayed as mythological characters in order to convey the sincere spontaneity and character traits characteristic of children.

Sentimentalist artists

One of the main representatives of sentimentalism in painting was the French artist Jean-Baptiste Greuze. His works are distinguished by the simulated emotionality of the characters, as well as excessive moralizing. The artist's favorite subject was a portrait of a girl suffering from dead birds. In order to emphasize the instructive role of the plot, Grez accompanied his paintings with explanatory comments.

Other representatives of sentimentalism in painting are S. Delon, T. Jones, R. Wilson. In their works, the main features of this art direction are also observed.

The French artist Jean-Baptiste Chardin also performed some of his work in the named style, while supplementing the existing typology with his own innovations. Thus, he introduced elements of social motives into the work of the direction.

His work "Prayer before dinner", in addition to the features of sentimentalism, has the features of the rococo style and carries an instructive overtones. She shows the importance of female education for the formation of elevated emotions in children. With the help of the picture, the artist aims to evoke various feelings in the observer, which is typical for the sentimental style of painting.

But, in addition, the canvas is replete with a large number of small details, bright and numerous colors, and there is also a complex composition available. Everything depicted is distinguished by a special grace: the interior of the room, the poses of the characters, the clothes. All of the above are important elements of the Rococo style.

Sentimentalism in Russian painting

This style came to Russia belatedly along with the popularity of antique cameos, which came into fashion thanks to the Empress Josephine. In Russia, artists combined sentimentalism with another popular trend - neoclassicism, thus forming a new style - Russian classicism in the form of romanticism. Representatives of this direction were V. Borovikovsky, I. Argunov and A. Venetsianov.

Sentimentalism asserted the need to consider the inner world of a person, the value of each individual. This became achievable due to the fact that artists began to show a person in an intimate setting, when he is left alone with his experiences and emotions.

Russian sentimentalists in their paintings placed the central figure of the hero in the picture of the landscape. Thus, man remained in the company of nature alone, where the opportunity arose to manifest the most natural emotional state.

Famous Russian sentimentalists

In Russian painting, sentimentalism almost did not manifest itself in its pure form, usually combined with other popular trends.

One of the most famous works, one way or another made in the style of sentimentalism, is the painting by V. Borovitsky “Portrait of Maria Lopukhina”. It depicts a young woman in a dress leaning on a railing. In the background you can see a landscape with birches and cornflowers. The heroine's face expresses thoughtfulness, trust in the environment and, at the same time, in the viewer. This work is rightfully considered the most outstanding object of Russian painting art. At the same time, there are clear features of sentimentalism in the style.

Another well-known representative of sentimentalism in Russian painting can be called A. Venetsianov with his paintings on pastoral themes: "Reapers", "Sleeping Shepherd", etc. They depict peaceful peasants who have found harmony in unity with Russian nature.

The trace of sentimentalism in history

Sentimentalism in painting was not distinguished by a single style and integrity, but gave rise to some features by which you can easily recognize the works of this direction. These include smooth transitions, refinement of lines, airiness of plots, a palette of colors with a predominance of pastel shades.

Sentimentalism laid the foundation for the fashion for medallions with portraits, ivory items, and fine painting. As already mentioned, in the 19th century, thanks to the Empress Josephine, antique cameos became widespread.

The End of the Age of Sentimentalism

In the 18th century, the direction in painting, sentimentalism, marked the beginning of the spread of such a style as romanticism. It became a logical continuation of the previous direction, but it also had opposite features. Romanticism is distinguished by high religiosity and sublime spirituality, while sentimentalism promoted the self-sufficiency of inner experiences and the richness of the inner world of one person.

Thus, the era of sentimentalism in painting and in other forms of art ended with the advent of a new style.

At the beginning of the 18th century, a completely new literary trend was born in Europe, which, first of all, focuses on the feelings and emotions of a person. Only at the end of the century it reaches Russia, but, unfortunately, it resonates with a small number of writers here ... All this is about the sentimentalism of the 18th century, and if you are interested in this topic, then continue reading.

Let's start with the definition of this literary trend, which determined new principles for highlighting the image and character of a person. What is "sentimentalism" in literature and art? The term comes from the French word "sentiment", which means "feeling". It means a direction in culture, where the artists of the word, notes and brushes emphasize the emotions and feelings of the characters. The time frame of the period: for Europe - the 20s of the XVIII - the 80s of the XVIII; For Russia, this is the end of the 18th century - the beginning of the 19th century.

For sentimentalism specifically in literature, the following definition is characteristic: it is a literary movement that came after classicism, in which the cult of the soul predominates.

The history of sentimentalism began in England. It was there that the first poems of James Thomson (1700-1748) were written. His works "Winter", "Spring", "Summer" and "Autumn", which were later combined into one collection, described simple rural life. Quiet, peaceful everyday life, incredible landscapes and fascinating moments from the life of peasants - all this is revealed to readers. The main idea of ​​the author is to show how good life is away from all the hustle and bustle of the city.

Some time later, another English poet, Thomas Gray (1716-1771), also tried to interest the reader in landscape poems. In order not to be like Thomson, he added poor, sad and melancholic characters that people should empathize with.

But not all poets and writers loved nature so much. Samuel Richarson (1689-1761) was the first symbolist to describe only the lives and feelings of his characters. No scenery!

Two favorite themes for England - love and nature - were combined in his work "Sentimental Journey" by Laurence Sterne (1713-1768).

Then sentimentalism "migrated" to France. The main representatives were Abbé Prevost (1697-1763) and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778). The intense intrigue of love drinking in the works "Manon Lescaut" and "Julia, or New Eloise" forced all French women to read these touching and sensual novels.

This period of sentimentalism in Europe ends. Then it starts in Russia, but we will talk about this later.

Differences from classicism and romanticism

The object of our research is sometimes confused with other literary movements, between which it has become a kind of transitional link. So what are the differences?

Differences between sentimentalism and romanticism:

• In the first place, feelings are at the head of sentimentalism, and at the head of romanticism, the personality of a person has straightened up to its full height;
• Secondly, the sentimental hero is opposed to the city and the pernicious influence of civilization, and the romantic hero is opposed to society;
• And, thirdly, the hero of sentimentalism is kind and simple, love occupies the main role in his life, and the hero of romanticism is melancholy and gloomy, his love often does not save, on the contrary, plunges into irrevocable despair.

Differences between sentimentalism and classicism:

• Classicism is characterized by the presence of "speaking names", the relationship of time and place, the rejection of the unreasonable, the division into "positive" and "negative" heroes. While sentimentalism "sings" love for nature, naturalness, trust in man. The characters are not so unambiguous, their images are interpreted in two ways. Strict canons disappear (there is no unity of place and time, there is no choice in favor of duty or punishment for the wrong choice). The sentimental hero looks for the good in everyone and is not molded into a label instead of a name;
• Classicism is also characterized by its straightforwardness, ideological orientation: in the choice between duty and feeling, it is appropriate to choose the first. In sentimentalism, the opposite is true: only simple and sincere emotions are the criterion for evaluating the inner world of a person.
• If in classicism the main characters were noble or even had a divine origin, but in sentimentalism, representatives of the poor classes come to the fore: philistines, peasants, honest workers.

Main features

The main features of sentimentalism are usually attributed to:

• The main thing is spirituality, kindness and sincerity;
• Much attention is paid to nature, it changes in unison with the state of mind of the character;
• Interest in the inner world of a person, in his feelings;
• Lack of straightness and clear direction;
• Subjective view of the world;
• The lowest stratum of the population = a rich inner world;
• Idealization of the village, criticism of civilization and the city;
• The tragic love story is the author's focus;
• The style of the works is clearly replete with emotional remarks, lamentations and even speculations on the sensitivity of the reader.

Genres representing this literary movement:

• Elegy- a genre of poetry characterized by the sad mood of the author and a sad theme;
• Novel- a detailed narrative about any event or life of the hero;
• epistolary genre- works in the form of letters;
• Memoirs- a work where the author talks about the events in which he personally participated, or about his life in general;
• Diary- personal records with impressions of what is happening for a specific period of time;
• Trips- a travel diary with personal impressions of new places and acquaintances.

It is customary to distinguish two opposite directions within the framework of sentimentalism:

• Noble sentimentalism first considers the moral side of life, and then the social. Spiritual qualities come first;
• Revolutionary sentimentalism is mainly focused on the idea of ​​social equality. As a hero, we see a tradesman or peasant who suffered from a soulless and cynical representative of the upper class.

Features of sentimentalism in literature:

• Detailed description of nature;
• The beginnings of psychologism;
• Emotionally rich style of the author
• The theme of social inequality is gaining popularity
• The theme of death is considered in detail.

Signs of sentimentalism:

• The story is about the soul and feelings of the hero;
• The dominance of the inner world, "human nature" over the conventions of a hypocritical society;
• The tragedy of strong but unrequited love;
• Rejection of a rational view of the world.

Of course, the main theme of all works is love. But, for example, in the work of Alexander Radishchev "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" (1790), the key theme is the people and their lives. In Schiller's drama "Deceit and Love", the author speaks out against the arbitrariness of the authorities and class prejudices. That is, the theme of the direction can be the most serious one.

Unlike representatives of other literary movements, sentimentalist writers "included" in the life of their heroes. They denied the principle of "objective" discourse.

The essence of sentimentalism is to show the usual everyday life people and their sincere feelings. All this takes place against the backdrop of nature, which complements the picture of events. The main task of the author is to make readers feel all the emotions along with the characters and empathize with them.

Features of sentimentalism in painting

We have already discussed the characteristic features of this trend in the literature earlier. Now it's time for painting.

Sentimentalism in painting is most vividly represented in our country. First of all, he is associated with one of the most famous artists, Vladimir Borovikovsky (1757-1825). Portraits predominate in his work. When depicting a female image, the artist tried to show her natural beauty and rich inner world. The most famous works are: “Lizonka and Dashenka”, “Portrait of M.I. Lopukhina" and "Portrait of E.N. Arsenyeva". Also worth noting is Nikolai Ivanovich Argunov, who was known for his portraits of the Sheremetevs. In addition to paintings, Russian sentimentalists also excelled in the technique of John Flaxaman, namely his painting on dishes. The most famous is the “Green Frog Service”, which can be seen in the St. Petersburg Hermitage.

Of the foreign artists, only three are known - Richard Brompton (3 years worked in St. in costumed portraits).

Representatives

1. James Thomson (1700 - 1748) - Scottish playwright and poet;
2. Edward Jung (1683 - 1765) - English poet, founder of "graveyard poetry";
3. Thomas Gray (1716 - 1771) - English poet, literary critic;
4. Lawrence Sterne (1713 - 1768) - English writer;
5. Samuel Richardson (1689 - 1761) - English writer and poet;
6. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 - 1778) - French poet, writer, composer;
7. Abbé Prevost (1697 - 1763) - French poet.

Examples of works

1. A collection of The Seasons by James Thomson (1730);
2. The Rural Cemetery (1751) and Thomas Gray's Ode to Spring;
3. "Pamela" (1740), "Clarissa Garlo" (1748) and "Sir Charles Grandinson" (1754) by Samuel Richardson;
4. Tristram Shandy (1757-1768) and Sentimental Journey (1768) by Lawrence Sterne;
5. "Manon Lescaut" (1731), "Cleveland" and "Life of Marianne" by Abbé Prevost;
6. "Julia, or New Eloise" by Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1761).

Russian sentimentalism

Sentimentalism appeared in Russia around 1780-1790. This phenomenon gained popularity thanks to the translation of various Western works, among which were "The Sufferings of Young Werther" by Johann Wolfgang Goethe, the parable-story "Paul and Virginie" by Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, "Julia, or New Eloise" by Jean-Jacques Rousseau and novels by Samuel Richardson.

"Letters of a Russian Traveler" - it was from this work of Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin (1766 - 1826) that the period of sentimentalism in Russian literature began. But then the story was written, which became the most significant in the entire history of the existence of this movement. We are talking about "" (1792) Karamzin. In this work, all the emotions, the innermost movements of the souls of the characters are felt. The reader empathizes with them throughout the book. The success of "Poor Liza" inspired Russian writers to create similar works, but less successful (for example, "Unfortunate Margarita" and "The Story of Poor Mary" by Gavriil Petrovich Kamenev (1773-1803)).

We can also refer to sentimentalism the earlier work of Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky (1783 - 1852), namely his ballad "". Later, he also wrote the story "Maryina Grove" in the style of Karamzin.

Alexander Radishchev is the most controversial sentimentalist. His affiliation to this movement is still disputed. The genre and style of the work “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” speak in favor of his involvement in the movement. The author often used exclamations and tearful digressions. For example, the exclamation was heard from the pages as a refrain: “Oh, hard-hearted landowner!”.

The year 1820 is called the end of sentimentalism in our country and the birth of a new trend - romanticism.

The peculiarity of Russian sentimentalism is that each work tried to teach the reader something. It served as a mentor. Within the framework of the direction, a real psychologism was born, which was not there before. This era can still be called the "age of exceptional reading", since only spiritual literature could guide a person on the true path and help him understand his inner world.

Hero types

All sentimentalists portrayed ordinary people, not "citizens". Before us always appears a subtle, sincere, natural nature, which does not hesitate to show its real feelings. The author always considers it from the side of the inner world, testing it for strength with a test of love. He never puts her in any framework, but allows her to develop and grow spiritually.

The main meaning of any sentimental work was and will be only a person.

language feature

A simple, understandable and emotionally colored language is the basis of the style of sentimentalism. It is also characterized by voluminous lyrical digressions with appeals and exclamations of the author, where he indicates his position and the moral of the work. Almost every text uses exclamation marks, diminutive forms of words, vernacular, expressive vocabulary. Thus, the literary language at this stage approaches the language of the people, making reading accessible to a wider audience. For our country, this meant that the art of the word was reaching a new level. Recognition goes to secular prose, written lightly and artistically, and not to the ponderous and insipid works of imitators, translators, or fanatics.

The French Revolution played an important role in the emergence of sentimentalism and its wide distribution in almost all areas of art and, in particular, in architecture. Late 18th and first third of the 19th century in France - the time of great historical events, the time of the collapse of the feudal order and the establishment of capitalist society. Having opened a wide path for the development of capitalism, the great French bourgeois revolution set in motion forces that were destined to revolutionize the field of architecture as well.

The disclosure of the relativity of the existing ideas about ancient architecture (which arose in the second half of the 18th century as a result of a closer acquaintance with ancient monuments, which opened them in all their living diversity and individual uniqueness), was the first change in a coherent system of rules based on the recognition of the absolutist significance of reforms, taken outside of their historical conditionality. The result of the expansion of ties with the outside world and the increased interest in the architecture of other countries and eras was also the multiplicity of architectural samples. Not only the monuments of Italy and Rome, but also the countries of the East, Egypt, not only antiquity, but also the Renaissance, began to be recognized as worthy of imitation. Gothic traditions are beginning to revive again, especially persistent in church architecture and never completely disappearing in the country. All this created fertile ground for a sentimentalist approach to the development of architectural forms, which undermined classicism. General History of Architecture, C 186

The end of the 18th century, the hallmark of which seemed to be a new turn to antiquity, was marked by the emergence of ideas aimed at debunking the classical ideal, liberation from the burden of the canons that had developed on its basis and, ultimately, from the classical forms themselves. For the first time, it is not this or that interpretation of the classics that is called into question, but it itself, its system and forms.

At the same time, the lack of real conditions for the implementation of ideas that radically undermine the ideological system of classicism led to the fact that new techniques and forms in architecture appeared from the end of the 18th century. and later in the 19th century. in close interweaving with the techniques of classicism, with eclectic borrowing of architectural forms from other eras and countries. The external positions of classicism seem unshakable, and its late stage, or the so-called empire style, is distinguished by a magnificent representativeness of forms and a definite artistic characterization. But contradictions between the architectural form and construction, between the forms and the purpose of the building are already beginning to appear.

In the spirit of public views, the aesthetic system of French architecture of the second half of the 18th century is being formed. and the first task now is to "liberate" the heritage of the national artistic culture and classical architecture of the 17th century. from everything that was alien to the new bourgeois-rationalist ideal. In the infinity of the straight alleys of the trimmed park, as in the infinity of the palace enfilades with all their splendor, now they saw only the spirit of absolutism, hostile to the "natural" nature of the human individual. What was new was the relation of architecture to nature; not to subdue, but to understand it, to reveal it in living diversity has become a new aesthetic principle of architects. The second half of the 18th century is the time of the development of free forms of the landscape "English" park, which marked the manifestations of a sentimental trend in architecture.

The natural principles of nature, embodied in a separate human individuality - "human nature" - constitute the criterion at the basis of that new, "reasonable" social system, which was supposed to put an end to the hated world order of the feudal-estate society. Now the idealized ancient democracy and the ancient culture of the Greek city-states are presented as an image of correspondence to the natural principles of human nature, and the ancient classics (as it was then understood) - its ideal expression in the field of art and architecture.

In the second half of the XVIII century. affects the well-known general change in the typology of architecture. In urban construction, large secular public buildings predominate. In Russia, this is the time of the beginning of the extensive construction of suburban noble houses, and in cities and large merchant residential estates, especially in Moscow. All this contributed to the widespread dissemination of new stylistic forms of architecture, in which the aesthetics of sentimentalism, consonant with new moods, are being developed everywhere.

The then-determined stylistic uniformity of architecture had its own complexity. What was now an important subject of search in the new appeal to the classics, its “naturalness” and correspondence to the “nature” of architecture, indirectly led to a new division of stylistic currents. The renewal of architecture in the middle of the 18th century consisted in the emergence of new ideological trends that brought a sentimental direction to art. General History of Architecture, S. 43

The forms and methods of mastering the architecture of the classical heritage have taken on a new character. In the middle of the XVIII century. modern archaeological science is born, the relevance of which at that time was directly related to the new aesthetic demands of society. The excavations raised a wave of real archaeological fever, which led to new discoveries in the field of Greco-Roman classics, which now gave an idea of ​​​​the true architecture of antiquity, updated and enriched the creative palette of architecture. Architects widely use elements and individual fragments of the compositions of the composition of historical monuments in garden and park architecture. This is clearly reflected in the nature of the evolution of architectural forms and techniques of sentimentalism at the end of the 18th century, when the ideas of the period of the French Revolution give a new figurative coloring of emphasized masculinity to Hellenic-antique forms.

From the middle of the XVIII century. the typological face of European architecture is also changing significantly. But it is in the field of typology that a different development dynamics is also revealed, which makes us return to some features of the former stylistic bifurcation of architecture, where the border ran between absolutist France and bourgeois Holland and England. Here, two different architectural cultures opposed one another as leading ones: the culture of the feudal-absolutist palace in the form of a grandiose garden and park complex and the culture of a comfortable urban and bourgeois residential building par excellence. But in absolute France, the leading type of architecture and the initial planning base for the formation of typical features of its urban planning method remained the palace and park complex of the absolutist residence. Thus, the tendencies of sentimentalism were also manifested in other types of architecture, not only in park art.

While in literature at the end of the XVIII century. the sentimental direction prevailed; in architecture, classicism did not lose its former positions. If classical literature can be compared with the regular style of gardening art, then the analogue of sentimentalism will be the so-called landscape park, carefully planned, but reproducing in its composition natural landscapes: irregularly shaped meadows covered with picturesque groups of trees, whimsically shaped ponds and lakes dotted with islands.

In the second half of the 18th century, a landscape system for planning parks began to develop - parks were arranged with winding paths, with picturesquely and freely located pavilions and pavilions, with soft, round ponds. As a tribute to the romantic moods of the time, artificial ruins, cascades, grottoes were created in "landscape parks". Reconstruction and further construction of the royal country palaces near St. Petersburg was carried out in the 1760s-1770s, mainly by the architects Neelovs.

The architects Neyelov partially replanned and expanded the Catherine Park of Tsarskoe Selo, giving it a “landscape” character to the reconstructed and new sections, created a large pond with picturesque banks, a number of small parks, pavilions, bridges and pavilions in the “Gothic” and “Chinese” spirit (“Admiralty ”, “Big Caprice”, “Chinese Theater”, etc.), placed among the trees at the corners of the paths and by the lakes.

Sentimental moods affected not only the planning, but also the architecture of individual buildings, interpreted in "Gothic" forms. This happened both in St. Petersburg (works by Neelov, Felten's Chesme Palace) and in Moscow, where in the works of Bazhenov and Kazakov, "Gothic" acquired a national-romantic character. A striking example of Moscow "pseudo-Gothic" is the Tsaritsyno estate near Moscow, built by V.I. Bazhenov. Having received an order for the construction of the summer residence of Catherine II in the "Moorish-Gothic taste" near Moscow, Bazhenov turned not only to Gothic, but also to the Russian architectural heritage of the 16th - 17th centuries. General History of Architecture, S. 216

The estate was conceived by the architect as a series of picturesquely scattered small structures. The main group of the ensemble consisted of two identical palace pavilions (for Catherine and for Paul) and the main Cavalry Corps located in front of them. National traditions manifested themselves in the picturesque layout of the estate, in the 18th century.

In the organic combination of architecture with nature, in the colorful and patterned facades, in the correspondence of architectural forms to building materials, in the expressiveness of the silhouette of buildings.

The park of the Pavlovsk Palace is a wonderful example of a "landscape park" with its free layout that imitates the beauty of nature. Picturesquely curving river. Slavyanka with park buildings skillfully placed on its steep slopes is one of the main elements of its composition. Whimsically planned alleys and paths, closely connected with the terrain, unite individual parts of the park and reveal pavilions, gazebos, bridges, colonnades, monuments and other structures from different perspectives. The most significant of them are the Temple of Friendship, the Pavilion of the Three Graces, the aviary, the Colonnade of Apollo.

Temple of Friendship (1780-1782), standing on the banks of the river. Slavyanka, has the shape of a rotunda, surrounded by 16 fluted columns of the Doric order. The Pavilion of the Three Graces (1800-1801) is located next to the palace. This open graceful colonnade portico contains a marble statue of the Three Graces, executed by Triscorni from an original by Canova. The Colonnade of Apollo is also interpreted in the spirit of antiquity.

Pavlovsk was built in a relatively short period of time and took shape as an architectural ensemble during the last two decades of the 18th century. in the 80s, when the foundations of Pavlovsk were laid as an architectural whole. In Russian culture, along with the ideals of citizenship, gravitating towards antiquity, trends of sentimentalism began to appear with its cult of feeling and the rejection of rationality. This was reflected in the Pavlovsk park - an outstanding palace and park ensemble of the period of Russian sentimentalism. Almost simultaneously with Pavlovsk in 1790-1794. the so-called terms of Cameron were also built in Tsarskoye Selo. Baths of Cameron - a two-tiered structure adjacent to the Grand Tsarsko-Selsky Palace and including the Cold Baths with the Agate Rooms (1780-1785), the Hanging Garden, a gentle slope "ramp" (1785-1794) and the "Cameron Gallery" (1783-1786). The architect, having received the task to build a bathroom and a bathhouse for Catherine II, turned to the well-known heritage of ancient buildings. Freely arranging Greco-Roman motifs, he created a number of unexpected, but harmonious combinations.

The façades of the Agate Rooms, a light park pavilion with an elegant oval portico and twin Ionic columns, are designed in subtle and varied ways. The Hanging Garden, located on top of a massive vaulted arch, connects the Cold Baths and the Agate Rooms with the Cameron Gallery and the park, which descends from hanging garden"ramp". The whole complex is turned to the greenery of the park, the panorama of which is well perceived from the side of the gallery with widely spaced columns. To the end of the gallery, from the side of the lake, adjoins a solemn staircase, decorated with copies of ancient statues of Hercules and Flora. General History of Architecture, S. 248

Artificial ruins, arranged in picturesque remote corners, near water bodies, under the canopy of trees, become a kind of decoration for manor parks. Interest in antiquity, brought up by Pironesi's engravings and W. Scott's novel, is combined with a fashion for sensitivity, melancholy with a necrophilic tinge. Skillfully imitating “cracks” in the walls and piling up “time-worn” stones in the vaults, the architects sometimes achieved the degree of grotesque that postmodernists of the late 20th century would envy. For example, a monstrous Doric column was erected according to the project

Y. Felten in the Ekaterininsky Pak of Tsarskoye Selo.

Sentimentalism in architecture is characterized by the names of buildings that were borrowed in poetry and literature. The words “temple of friendship”, “temple of love”, “hut”, “ruins”, and so on, had the same abstract ideal character of the “type” that distinguished the conditional characters of sentimental stories and poems with their allegorical names. Pavilions in a certain style embodied idyllic ideas of love and friendship, rural simplicity, eternity and perishability, which were reinforced by literary associations. Various styles were brought in to create the most complete range of sentimental feelings embodied in architectural images.

It is known that the allegory of artistic images was one of the essential features of the aesthetics of the Enlightenment. Acquaintance with the basics of the allegorical language, a stock of poetic associations gleaned from mythology and ancient literature were necessary not only when reading classical poetry, perceiving painting, graphics and sculpture, but also when “living in” landscape parks and park architecture.

If, in order to decipher the meaning of architectural images in English gardens in the last third of the 18th century. it required, first of all, knowledge of ancient mythology, sentimental poetry and literature, which made it possible to understand the complex symbolism of generalized architectural images associated with a range of emotional associations, then the works of the subsequent romantic era corresponded to a certain style code based on historical knowledge, which became more and more scientifically substantiated. Borisova E. A. Russian architecture in the era of romanticism P. 30

The allegory of architectural images was the innovation that he brought to Russian architecture, and was associated not only with the images of antiquity, but also with the sentimentalist literature of that time to no lesser extent than the park landscape itself. Samples of architecture aroused direct literary associations, the variants of their combinations were close and understandable to contemporaries.

In relation to some phenomena in Russian architecture of the late XVIII century. the concepts of "sentimentalism" and "romanticism" often seem to substitute for each other. The most important feature of sentimentalism as a whole was that it developed entirely in line with the Enlightenment, romanticism was a kind of reaction to it. True, in Russia the situation was somewhat different, and, as literary historians note, enlightenment retained its importance in the era of romanticism, which, in particular, indirectly affected the perception of architecture. At the same time, it is sometimes very difficult to draw a clear line between the images of classical poetry and those sentimentalist notes that were heard more and more clearly in the second half of the 18th century, especially when perceiving nature.

If the landscape of a natural garden skillfully imitated natural nature, then park architecture constructed an idealized "model of the world" and created an idyllic environment for the perception of sentimental images of poetry and literature. It can be said that sentimentalist ideas and sentimentalist poetry had no less influence on the formation of the aesthetics of park structures than the special guides on park construction that have become widespread in Russia.

A kind of key to deciphering the complex relationship between the literature of sentimentalism and the poetics of the landscape park can be the words of Delisle from his Preface to his own poem: “There are two kinds of sensitivity. One softens our heart at the sight of the misfortunes of our neighbor, and this is the sensitivity that many writers recognize. But there is another kind of it, much rarer, but no less valuable: it is sensitivity, which spreads, like life itself, to all parts of the work, gives interest to objects most alien to man, awakens in us sympathy for the fate, well-being or death of the animal. or even plants. To the places where we lived or grew up and which witnessed our sorrows or joys, to the sad sight of the ruins. Borisova E. A. Russian architecture in the era of romanticism S. 29

Idealized images of garden architecture were inseparable from the idealistic structure of feelings, close to sentimentalist literature with its "normativity" of artistic images, borrowed from the Enlightenment. The change of sensitive moods, reflections and melancholy was accompanied by a change in visual impressions, including architectural elements in the system of landscape parks.

Passion for travel, which distinguished the end of the XVIII century. and inherited by the 19th century, dates back to the Enlightenment. Gradually, the cognitive nature of travel increased more and more, which could not but be reflected in the formation of new views on European architecture, reviews of which are increasingly appearing on the pages of travel diaries. Karamzin's "Letters from a Russian Traveler" was one of the earliest examples of such a diary in Russian culture. The ruins of a castle, the streets of a city unfamiliar to us become facts of culture if there are documents that shed light on their history, their place in the development of civilization.

Already in the first years of the 19th century, contemporaries - poets, writers, artists, were looking for and finding romantic motives in the landscape parks of the previous era, still colored by the charm of sentimentalism, through which the features of romanticism are increasingly visible. The connection with sentimentalism was also found in the attraction to nature, to solitude and simplicity, but immersion in nature becomes more and more melancholy and individualized.

Already in the 1800s, amateur images of landscape parks became widespread, emphatically intimate, non-ceremonial in nature and associated with personal memories. The purely professional, carefully balanced, skillfully calibrated, precisely built landscapes of the St. Petersburg cities of S. Shchedrin, were widely used in engravings and even in porcelain of the era of classicism, were also incomparable with the idealized drawings of Pavlovsk made by V. Zhukovsky, where the motive of romantic memories and contemplation. Such chamber drawings and paintings, which were widely distributed, were supposed to remind of favorite places, people and events. Borisova E. A. Russian architecture in the era of romanticism P. 63

Thus, in architecture, sentimentalism was most widespread in landscape art, which later influenced not only the development of new trends, but also influenced the fascination with sentimentalist ideas both in literature and in painting. It is precisely in landscape art that sometimes a barely perceptible transition from the sentimentalist perception of the images of architecture of the late 18th century is noticeable. to a romantic vision. For example, melancholic motifs, which originated in the poetry of the 1790s, are becoming more widespread. and influenced many artistic spheres of culture.

V. L. Borovikovsky entered the artistic atmosphere of St. Petersburg when sentimentalism developed along with the ideas of classicism and in parallel with it. The artist was destined to become in the painting of the 1790s. creator sentimental portrait. He begins with miniature portraits in oil, most often on cardboard, but also on copper, zinc, bone, wood (portrait of G. R. Derzhavin, late 1794 - early 1795; Lizynka and Dashinka, 1795; both - State Tretyakov Gallery; portraits architect A. A. Menelas, poet V. V. Kapnist, both - early 1790s, Russian Museum). In these works, the cult of reason gives way to the cult of feeling. In them, the poet Kapnist dreams “in enchanted oblivion” at the sculptural bust of his wife Sashenka against the backdrop of a rural landscape, and the yard girls Liza and Dasha resemble lovely young ladies from sentimental novels, sighing about love on moonlit nights, playing the harp or dancing the Lanner waltz.

All of a sudden, as if at the same time, they yearned for estate life, morning dawns, and the smell of raspberries. Sentimentalism in art brought to the fore not the rationality and normativity of moral views, but the emotionality of a person, the uniqueness of his individual inner life. On the way to romanticism is sentimentalism, a call for compassion sounds: "Kruchina about everyone is a gift of sensitivity" (V. V. Kapnist). Painting "sentimental" miniatures of Borovikovsky - fused, enamel, as if porcelain, faded tones, as if taken under the mute. A member of the Derzhavin-Lvov circle, Borovikovsky shared the views of Lvov, his interest in folk life, folk art (during these years Lvov just published his poem Dobrynya, compiled a collection of folk songs). Hence, Borovikovsky has such idyllic-pastoral images as the portrait of the Torzhkov peasant woman Khristinya, the nurse in the Lvovs' house (1795, State Tretyakov Gallery). In such images, of course, there is no hint of sociality, no critical notes. It is full of affectionate, somewhat sad contemplation, naive charm and purity. The artist put into him a sincere feeling and warmth of the heart.

Borovikovsky's turn to miniature (and this was mainly the first half of the 1790s) was also a reaction to the official ceremonial portrait, an expression of the search for naturalness and simplicity in the portrait image instead of stiltedness and pathos. Let us recall that in the literature of this time, small forms are also developing: lyrical messages, romances, letters and diaries, revealing the life of the soul, conveying shades of emotions.

In the 1790s many principles of miniature painting are transferred by Borovikovsky to a portrait in oil on canvas of the usual sizes for the composition of the bust or waist cut. The "first sign" was the image of the wife of the artist's friend, architect M. F. Filippov, Olga Kuzminichna (1790, Russian Museum), unfinished, revealing still the uncertainty of the brush, but already a fully developed concept. The portrait depicts a woman in morning dress, with loose curls (supposedly uncombed, just as English parks are “uncultivated”), in the bosom of nature, with a flower in her hand. The faded range of tones, the fine modeling of volumes rightly allow us to see here Borovikovsky's acquaintance with the painting of J.-L. Voila and an English portrait (which is quite likely, because the collections of the St. Petersburg nobility also contained modern painting). But the main thing for us in Filippova's depiction is not even these "addresses" of formal techniques, but the idea of ​​a portrait, an appeal to the depiction of contemplative, inner life, far from secular fuss, i.e. new aesthetic ideal.

Gradually, something like a compositional canon of female (and these are always female) portraits is being developed: a half-length (rarely generational) section of a figure leaning on a tree or cabinet, a flower or fruit in the hand. The background is always natural. The figure is placed, as it were, at the junction of light (sky) and dark (clumps of trees). Sometimes not only the staging of the figure, but even the dress and jewelry are repeated from portrait to portrait, as in the images of E. N. Arsenyeva (1796) and Skobeeva (second half of the 1790s; both - the Russian Museum). A white dress, a pearl bracelet, an apple in her hand - everything is repeated, not to mention the general high pictorial qualities, such as a clear plasticity of form, exquisite picturesqueness, a beautifully developed airy atmosphere - and the images are completely different. The daughter of a military general, the coquettish, cheerful Ekaterina Arsenyeva in a straw hat and with an apple in her hand - a sort of rustic Russian Venus with a snub-nosed face. This theme was familiar at that time: Fomin wrote the opera The Golden Apple, Lvov wrote the text for the opera Judgment of Paris, and light irony reigns everywhere, as in the portrait of Borovikovsky. Skobeeva (name unknown) is completely different. The daughter of a sailor of the Baltic Fleet, she was the pupil of the "state man" D. P. Troshchinsky. On her beautiful, but somewhat masculine face, decisiveness and courage of character are expressed, which is fully confirmed by her actions: this girl managed to resist her ambiguous position and married a very poor Smolensk landowner Skobeev without the knowledge of her guardian.

Among the "sentimental" portraits of the 1790s. The portrait of Maria Ivanovna Lopukhina, the daughter of General I. A. Tolstoy and the sister of the famous Fyodor Tolstoy, an "American", a duellist and a breter (1797, State Tretyakov Gallery), stands out with its picturesque maestro and charming charm of the model, painted in cold faded bluish-greenish tones. In this portrait, the characteristic features of the painter's handwriting are especially clearly visible: Borovikovsky's colors are fused, enamel, transparent, with many glazes, there is nothing of Rokotov's "viscosity" in them. The painter loves the combination of white with pink or blue, pearl gray with pale crimson, ivory, dull gold, unclear tones, mother-of-pearl, smoky purple. Unlike the masters of the first half and the middle of the century, Borovikovsky always writes on white grounds.

The portrait of Lopukhina is built on a melodious linear rhythm, the finest chiaroscuro nuances, on the harmonious subordination of all parts. Comparing the portrait of Lopukhina with the portrait of Madame Serizia J.-L. David, the researcher subtly notes that for all its, undoubtedly, greater conventionality, connection with the tradition of the past eighteenth century. it does not have the dryness, sobriety, coldness of the French master, it is much softer, more direct, warmer than David's. The reason for this is the inexhaustible faith of Russian people in enlightenment ideals, in ardent illusions, in utopian but sincere dreams (see: Alekseeva T.V. Vladimir Lukich Borovikovsky and Russian culture at the turn of the 18th–19th centuries. P. 246). The image of Lopukhina seems to the researcher to be more integral in characterization, more noble, and higher. It was Maria Ivanovna Lopukhina who dedicated the poet's heartfelt lines:

She has long passed, and there are no longer those eyes

And there is no smile that was silently expressed

Suffering is the shadow of love, and thoughts are the shadow of sorrow,

But Borovikovsky saved her beauty.

So part of her soul did not fly away from us,

And there will be this look and this beauty of the body

To attract indifferent offspring to her,

Teaching him to love, suffer, forgive, be silent.

Ya. P. Polonsky. "To the portrait", 1885

Sentimental moods touched the image of the monarch. The portrait of Catherine II on a walk in the Tsarskoye Selo park (1794, State Tretyakov Gallery - against the backdrop of the Chesme Column), as is now reliably known, was not commissioned by the Empress. It was made as an approbation of the artist's talent with the aim of presenting it to the palace, most likely, according to the idea, plan and program of N.A. Lvov. The Empress was not painted from life (as, indeed, by almost all Russian masters); it is also known that she did not approve of Borovikovsky's work. Unfortunate circumstances for the artist came together here. Catherine's acquaintance with the portrait coincided with her irritation with Derzhavin, who glorified Suvorov in the ode "Song of Her Imperial Majesty Catherine II on the victories of Count Suvorov-Rymniksky." Borovikovsky received for the portrait only the title of "appointed to academician", and not academician, which was what the members of the Derzhavin-Lvov circle dreamed of (he received the title of academician later). Later, Borovikovsky made the author's repetition of the portrait of Catherine II on a walk in Tsarskoye Selo park, but now depicting her against the background of the Cahul (Rumyantsev) obelisk (1800–1810, Russian Museum). This portrait was commissioned by the Rumyantsevs, hence, instead of the Chesme Column, there is the Cahul obelisk in honor of the victories of P. A. Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky. Written at the very beginning of the 19th century. the portrait is drier, with accentuated light and shade modeling and careful drawing out of details.

Borovikovsky created an unusual portrait for that time. Ekaterina is presented on a walk in Tsarskoye Selo park in a dressing gown and a cap, with her favorite Italian greyhound at her feet. Not Felice, not a god-like queen who descended from heaven, she appears before the viewer, but a simple "Kazan landowner", whom she liked to appear in the last years of her life. It was in this image that Pushkin captured her in his great "tale of honor" - "The Captain's Daughter" (just in the 1820s, N. I. Utkin executed an engraving from the portrait of Borovikovsky, thanks to which the master's creation seemed to have experienced a second life and was a great success). The image of Borovikovsky in no way reminds us of "Catherine the Legislator": this is how artistic tastes change over a decade - from a classicistic lofty ideal to an almost genre interpretation of the sentimental sense of the image of a "simple rural resident".