Long before the birth of Temujin (Genghis Khan), who created the great Mongolian state, his ancestors inhabited vast areas from the Great Wall of China to the headwaters of the Selenga River. Chinese chroniclers called these tribes Mengu and divided them into white, black and wild. The Mongols themselves called themselves differently. Those who lived in the basin of the Onon, Kerulen and Tola rivers were called Khamag-Mongols; those who lived on the Onon River - jala-irami; wandering between the valley of the Onon River and the upper reaches of the Selenga - Taichiuts; between the Khangai and Khentei ridges - Kereits. To the west of their nomads, in the valleys of the Khangai and Altai mountains, the Naimans grazed their herds. The upper reaches of the Selenga were the possessions of the Merkits. In the north, they bordered on the lands of the “forest” tribes - trappers and fishermen who lived in deep taiga forests. In Transbaikalia lived the tribes of Khori, Bargut, Tumet, Bulagachin, Keremuchin, Uriankhai, Urasut and Telenguts, and in the Eight Rivers region - the Oirats.

On its territory, each tribe determined lands for the nomads of its constituent clans and families. The Mongols roamed in kurens - communities that numbered up to a thousand families. At the camps they were located in a ring. In the center was the leader's headquarters, and along the edges of the ring there were hitching posts, carts and cattle pens. All this constituted a kind of fortification.

The leaders of the tribes had sonorous nicknames: bator - hero, sechen - wisdom, mergen - sharp shooter, bilge - wise, buke - strongman. They led the warriors of one or more tribes in clashes with neighbors over pastures or hunting grounds. In wartime, and subsequently in peacetime, the tribal nobility - noyons - gathered around the leader. Each of them had a group of fellow tribesmen - nukers, who essentially made up a noyon squad, brave and devoted to their leader.

With a large and combat-ready squad, a noyon could keep his neighbors in obedience and proclaim himself a khan. But as soon as he did not please his nuker friends, lost a battle or lost his herds - his main wealth, his prosperity and power disappeared. And the former khan became a despicable fugitive, fleeing from yesterday's subjects.

Chapter "Art of Mongolia". General history of art. Volume II. Art of the Middle Ages. Book II. Asia, Africa, America, Oceania. Author: N.V. Dyakonova; under the general editorship of B.V. Weimarn and Yu.D. Kolpinsky (Moscow, State Publishing House "Art", 1961)

The Mongolian feudal state was formed quite late compared to other medieval countries of the East, in the 12th - early 13th centuries. This state was formed from various tribes that occupied in the 11th century. almost the entire territory of modern Mongolia and assimilated the peoples who previously inhabited it. The main unification of the country took place under Temujin, or Genghis Khan (1155-1227), who subjugated all the pastoral tribes and broke the resistance of their leaders. Under Genghis Khan, the name “Mongols” received official approval.

In the 12th-13th centuries. Mongolia already occupied a very vast space - from Baikal and Amur in the east to the headwaters of the Irtysh and Yenisei in the west, as well as from the Great Wall of China in the south to the borders of southern Siberia in the north. The formation of a single state contributed to the further development of feudal relations. Genghis Khan actually enslaved the pastoralists, attaching them to nomads. Karakorum became the capital under Genghis Khan, where a number of palaces and temples were built.

The main religion of the Mongols in the 13th century. Shamanism remained with belief in spirits and the cult of ancestors, but already at this time Christianity and Buddhism began to penetrate, which later became the leading religious doctrine in Mongolia. Highly developed cultures of Tibet and China, captured in the 13th century. Mongols, had a significant influence on the formation and formation of the architecture and art of Mongolia itself.

Thanks to archaeological research in recent years, the architecture of Mongolia has been the most studied. On the territory of the country, the remains of numerous buildings from the pre-feudal and feudal periods have been preserved. Many pastoral tribes of medieval Mongolia led a nomadic lifestyle. However, the discovered architectural monuments confirmed that Mongolia cannot be considered only as a country inhabited by nomads. At the turn of the 12th-13th centuries. There were several large cities in Mongolia, the most important of which was the capital city of Karakorum. The French ambassador who visited it in 1254 names twelve temples, two mosques and one Christian church.

Excavations in 1948-1949, carried out under the leadership of S.V. Kiselev, managed to establish that in the 13th century. The intensity of city construction was extraordinary. If in the 11th century. On the site of Karakorum there was only a small settlement, then in the 13-14th centuries. (until the destruction of the city by Chinese troops in 1380) it turned into a large and comfortable city with palaces and numerous buildings made of mud brick and covered with colored glazed Chinese-type tiles. The city was surrounded by massive walls; in its southwestern part, the remains of a vast building, apparently a palace, with a huge hall were discovered. Sixty-four stone bases were found, on which wooden columns once rested. Adjoining the building from the south was a staircase made of well-processed granite slabs. The roof was covered with glazed green and red tiles and decorated with sculptures of dragons.

The general arrangement of the palace buildings in terms of layout and ensemble principle of composition is close to Chinese medieval architecture. The improvement of the palaces of the Mongolian nobility is evidenced by the heating system found in one of them, similar to the Chinese one: air heated in external ovens passed under the floor through channels specially laid out for this purpose.

15-16 centuries characterized in Mongolia as a period of feudal fragmentation, which prevented the construction of large structures. Architecture has been revived since the second half of the 16th century. due to the widespread spread of Lamaism. In 1585, the first Lama monastery, Erdeni Tzu, was built, for which tiles and other building materials from the ruins of Karakorum were used. Erdeni Tzu was built in the traditions of Chinese architecture.

Simultaneously with monumental religious buildings built from mud brick and stone, a completely independent field of architecture associated with the traditions of nomadic life continued to develop in medieval Mongolia. Felt yurts, richly decorated with embroidery and colored appliqués, while not being buildings themselves in the generally accepted sense of the word, gradually gave rise to complex and varied structures adapted to the living conditions of the growing sedentary population. Most of the settled settlements were monasteries, the number of which especially increased in the 17th century. Initially, the monasteries were located in yurts, mixed from place to place. However, the increased importance and large funds at the disposal of the clergy allowed rich monasteries to build monumental buildings of stone, brick and wood, which both outside and inside were covered with rich and colorful painted designs.

The first temple buildings were placed on a plank platform, on which the wooden gratings characteristic of the construction of yurts were reinforced, and the roof was made of poles covered with felt. To increase the size of the temple, several similar yurts were put together, and a covered porch extended forward with a door was attached to them. But the collapsible yurt soon became a settled dwelling; poles and felt were replaced by boards, gratings by walls, a foundation appeared, and the increase in internal space caused the construction of numerous supporting columns. The round yurt gradually turns into a square polygonal building, and the cone-shaped roof takes on the character of a dome or tent. Often Mongolian motifs are intertwined, especially in the shapes of roofs, with Tibetan and Chinese ones, forming a new style. The coloring of the building is usually uniform. The walls and roofs are whitewashed, the doors are painted bright red, and the window frames are dark red. Great simplicity, clarity of divisions and a tendency towards a round plan characterize this original type of Mongolian architecture. These are, for example, churches of the 17th century. Da-Khure Monastery in Ulaanbaatar. Developing from folk homes, temples of this type were decorated with ornaments imitating patterns on felt. White roofs were painted with black and red stripes. During the conquest of Mongolia by the Manchus at the end of the 17th century. the number of temples has increased significantly; The influence of Chinese and Tibetan architecture also increased. A particularly large number of settlements arose in the 18th and 19th centuries. The buildings that have survived from this time - the Labran Palace of the Erdeni-Tzu Monastery (18th century) and the Maidari Temple in Da-Hura (19th century) - are distinguished by their simplicity and monumental forms. The Maidari Temple combines very original Tibetan and Mongolian features: an open terrace in the upper part, sculptures standing along the edges of the roof, an elongated façade in width (features of the Tibetan style) and a dome crowning a square building, taken from typical Mongolian yurts.

In addition to temple buildings in the 17-19 centuries. Suburgans, similar to Tibetan ones, but very diverse in decor, also appear on the territory of Mongolia. In general, Mongolian architecture in the Middle Ages developed its own monumental style, distinguished by greater softness than Tibetan, greater massiveness and less sophistication of forms, as well as the absence of the breadth and picturesque layout that characterize Chinese architecture.

In addition to architecture, other types of architecture were developed in medieval Mongolia. visual arts. In one of the buildings of Karakorum, paintings were discovered that were similar in style to the monuments of Xinjiang of the 9th-12th centuries. Samples of cult painting on canvas preserved in various temples are close to Tibetan icons. Small bronze sculptures of Buddhist saints are distinguished by great grace. They are very plastic, distinguished by the soft roundness of their gestures.

However, the applied art products of Mongolia are much more original in style. Bright geometric patterns, unusually intense in colorful combinations, covered the clothes of the Mongols. Felt yurts were decorated with both bright fabrics and patterns of appliqués and embroideries, which were enthusiastically reviewed by foreigners who visited Mongolia. Red, blue, purple and green colors set off and enliven the white felt of the yurt, making these dwellings unusually elegant. Since ancient times, Mongolian craftsmen have achieved great skill in inlaying precious stones on metal, bone carving, filigree, metal engraving and embossing.

INFORMATION FOR TOURISTS

HISTORY OF MONGOLIA

The Mongols are one of the oldest nations and have a rich history dating back thousands of years. In 2006, Mongolia celebrates the 800th anniversary of the formation of the Mongolian state and the 840th anniversary of Genghis Khan.

PREHISTORIC PERIOD

Many millions of years ago, the territory of modern Mongolia was covered with thickets of ferns, and the climate was hot and humid. Dinosaurs lived on earth for 160 million years and died out during their heyday. The reasons for this phenomenon have not yet been precisely established and scientists have put forward different hypotheses.

Humanity learned about the existence of these giant animals only 150 years ago. Science knows several hundred species of dinosaurs. The most famous discovery of dinosaur remains belongs to an American scientific expedition led by R. Andrews, which was organized in the 20s of the last century in the Gobi Desert. Now this find is kept in the Local History Museum of the City of New York. Dinosaur bones found in Mongolia are also in museums in St. Petersburg and Warsaw. The exhibition of the Natural History Museum is one of the best in the world and has been exhibited in many countries.

On the territory of present-day Mongolia, the ancestors of modern humans appeared over 800 thousand years ago. Homo Sapiens themselves lived here 40 thousand years ago. Researchers suggest that 20-25 thousand years ago there was a great migration from Central Asia to America through the Bering Strait.

NOMADS

On the banks of the Yellow River, the Chinese founded one of the first civilizations in human history and have had writing since ancient times. The written monuments of the Chinese talk a lot about nomads who constantly raided China. The Chinese called these foreigners “Hu,” which means “barbarians,” and divided them into “Xionghu,” the northern savages, and “Donghu,” the eastern savages. At that time, China was not a single state and consisted of several independent kingdoms, and the nomads existed in separate tribes and did not have a state system. Chinese
The kingdoms, fearing raids by nomadic tribes, built walls along the northern border of their territories. In 221 BC. The state of Qin was formed and thus for the first time the disparate kingdoms were united into one whole. The emperor of the Qing state, Shi Huangdi, united the numerous walls built by the kingdoms into one seamless system of defense against nomads. In order to break through strong defense The nomads united under the leadership of the Shanyu Mode and formed a strong state, which went down in history as the Xiongnu. Thus, in 209 BC. The first state system was established on the territory of present-day Mongolia. The question of the origin of the Xiongnu, whether they were Turks, Mongols or another nationality, remains controversial to this day. However, the states of the Seljuks, Xiongnu, Turks, Khitans, Avars, China, the Great Mongol Empire, the Golden Horde, the Ottoman Empire, the Empire of Timur, as well as current states such as Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan are the direct successors of the first nomadic state of the Xiongnu. For about 400 years, the Xiongnu played an important historical role. Later, after the division into southern and northern Xiongnu, they were defeated by the Chinese and Donghu, and thus the Xiongnu state ceased to exist. The nomads, united against the Xiongnu, in 156 formed the most powerful state in Central Asia - Xianbi. At this time, the powerful Han dynasty ruled in China. In the 3rd century, the Toba separated from the Xianbi and subsequently captured Northern China. Later, Toba's descendants were assimilated by the Chinese. The descendants of the Donghu Rourans had strong troops and in the 5th century they conquered the territory from Harshar to Korea. They were the first to use the title of khan. Researchers believe that the Rourans were a Mongol tribe.

The Tang Dynasty in China was a time of cultural flourishing. Later, the Rourans were conquered by the Turks, and later, during the wars, they reached European territories. They are known in history as Avars. They owned the largest conquests made before the advent of Genghis Khan. By the 7th century, the Turks had become the most powerful state in the world. During their campaigns they reached Asia Minor and became the ancestors of modern Turks. The Turkic state fell after numerous attacks by powerful states united against them. On the territory of the defeated Turkic state, the Uyghur state arose. The capital of the Uyghur state Karabalgas was discovered during excavations in the Orkhon River valley. In 840 they were defeated by the Kyrgyz, who reached them along the Yenisei River. The Kyrgyz ruled briefly in Central Asia and were driven out by the Mongol Khitan tribes to the Pamirs. Since then, only the Mongols began to rule on the territory of Mongolia. As they grew stronger, the Khitans gradually moved south from the Great Wall of China and during the development of present-day Beijing as the capital, they largely disappeared into the Chinese population and remained in Chinese history as the Liao Dynasty.

PERIOD OF THE GREAT MONGOL EMPIRE

In 924 Turkic tribes left the territory of present-day Mongolia, and the Mongols began to rule themselves. Apart from the brief period of Khitan rule, the Mongols could not form a single state. By the 13th century, there were many tribes on the territory of Mongolia, such as the Naiman, Tatars, Khamag-Mongols, Keraits, Onyuds, Merkits, etc. After the Khamag-Mongol Khan Khabul, the Mongol tribes were without a leader until 1189 His descendant Temujin was not proclaimed Khan of all Mongols and received the title Genghis Khan.

Temujin's first major military enterprise was the war against the Tatars, launched jointly with Togoril around 1200. The Tatars at that time had difficulty repelling the attacks of the Jin troops that entered their possessions. Taking advantage of the favorable situation, Temujin and Togoril inflicted a number of strong blows on the Tatars and captured rich booty. The Jin government awarded high titles to the steppe leaders as a reward for the defeat of the Tatars. Temujin received the title "jauthuri" (military commissar), and Togoril - "van" (prince), from that time he became known as Van Khan. In 1202, Temujin independently opposed the Tatars. Temujin's victories caused the consolidation of the forces of his opponents. A whole coalition took shape, including Tatars, Taichiuts, Merkits, Oirats and other tribes, which elected Jamukha as their khan. In the spring of 1203, a battle took place that ended in the complete defeat of the forces of Jamukha. This victory further strengthened the Temujin ulus.

In 1204, Temujin defeated the Naimans. Their ruler Tayan Khan died, and his son Kuchuluk fled to the territory of Semirechye in the country of the Karakitai (southwest of Lake Balkhash).

At the kurultai in 1206, Temujin was proclaimed the great khan over all tribes - Genghis Khan. Mongolia has been transformed: the scattered and warring Mongolian nomadic tribes have united into a single state.

After Temujin became the all-Mongol ruler, his policies began to reflect the interests of the Noyon movement even more clearly. The Noyons needed internal and external activities that would help consolidate their dominance and increase their income. New wars of conquest and the robbery of rich countries were supposed to ensure the expansion of the sphere of feudal exploitation and the strengthening of the class positions of the noyons.

The administrative system created under Genghis Khan was adapted to achieve these goals. He divided the entire population into tens, hundreds, thousands and tumens (ten thousand), thereby mixing tribes and clans and appointing specially selected people from his confidants and nukers as commanders over them. All adult and healthy men were considered warriors who ran their households in peacetime and took up arms in wartime. This organization provided Genghis Khan with the opportunity to increase his armed forces to approximately 95 thousand soldiers.

Individual hundreds, thousands and tumens, together with the territory for nomadism, were given into the possession of one or another noyon. The Great Khan, considering himself the owner of all the land in the state, distributed land and arats into the possession of noyons, on the condition that they would regularly perform certain duties in return. The most important duty was military service. Each noyon was obliged, at the first request of the overlord, to field the required number of warriors in the field. Noyon, in his inheritance, could exploit the labor of the arats, distributing his cattle to them for grazing or involving them directly in work on his farm. Small noyons served large ones.

Under Genghis Khan, the enslavement of arats was legalized, and unauthorized movement from one dozen, hundreds, thousands or tumens to others was prohibited. This ban meant the formal attachment of the arats to the land of the noyons - for migrating from their possessions, the arats faced the death penalty.

Genghis Khan elevated the written law to a cult and was a supporter of strong law and order. He created a network of communication lines in his empire, courier communications on a large scale for military and administrative purposes, and organized intelligence, including economic intelligence.

Genghis Khan divided the country into two “wings”. He placed Boorcha at the head of the right wing, and Mukhali, his two most faithful and experienced associates, at the head of the left. He made the positions and ranks of senior and highest military leaders - centurions, thousanders and temniks - hereditary in the family of those who, with their faithful service, helped him seize the khan's throne.

In 1207-1211, the Mongols conquered the land of the Yakuts, Kyrgyz and Uighurs, that is, they subjugated almost all the main tribes and peoples of Siberia, imposing tribute on them. In 1209, Genghis Khan conquered Central Asia and turned his attention to the south.

Before the conquest of China, Genghis Khan decided to secure the eastern border by capturing in 1207 the Tangut state of Xi-Xia, who had previously conquered Northern China from the dynasty of the Chinese Song emperors and created their own state, which was located between his possessions and the Jin state. Having captured several fortified cities, in the summer of 1208 the “True Ruler” retreated to Longjin, waiting out the unbearable heat that fell that year. Meanwhile, news reaches him that his old enemies Tokhta-beki and Kuchluk are preparing for a new war with him. Anticipating their invasion and having carefully prepared, Genghis Khan defeated them completely in a battle on the banks of the Irtysh.

Satisfied with the victory, Temujin again sends his troops against Xi-Xia. After defeating an army of Chinese Tatars, he captured the fortress and passage in the Great Wall of China and in 1213 invaded the Chinese Empire itself, the state of Jin and advanced as far as Nianxi in Hanshu Province. With increasing persistence, Genghis Khan led his troops, strewing the road with corpses, deep into the continent and established his power even over the province of Liaodong, central to the empire. Several Chinese commanders, seeing that the Mongol conqueror was gaining constant victories, ran over to his side. The garrisons surrendered without a fight.

Having established his position along the entire Great Wall of China, in the fall of 1213 Temujin sent three armies to different parts of the Chinese Empire. One of them, under the command of the three sons of Genghis Khan - Jochi, Chagatai and Ogedei, headed south. Another, led by Temujin's brothers and generals, moved east to the sea. Genghis Khan himself and his youngest son Tolui, at the head of the main forces, set out in a southeastern direction. The First Army advanced as far as Honan and, after capturing twenty-eight cities, joined Genghis Khan on the Great Western Road. The army under the command of Temujin's brothers and generals captured the province of Liao-hsi, and Genghis Khan himself ended his triumphant campaign only after he reached the sea rocky cape in Shandong province. But either fearing civil strife, or due to other reasons, he decides to return to Mongolia in the spring of 1214 and makes peace with the Chinese emperor, leaving Beijing to him. However, before the leader of the Mongols had time to leave the Great Wall of China, the Chinese emperor moved his court further away, to Kaifeng. This step was perceived by Temujin as a manifestation of hostility, and he again sent troops into the empire, now doomed to destruction. The war continued.

The Jurchen troops in China, replenished by the aborigines, fought the Mongols until 1235 on their own initiative, but were defeated and exterminated by Genghis Khan's successor Ogedei.

Following China, Genghis Khan was preparing for a campaign in Kazakhstan and Central Asia. He was especially attracted to the flourishing cities of Southern Kazakhstan and Zhetysu. He decided to implement his plan through the valley of the Ili River, where rich cities were located and ruled by Genghis Khan’s longtime enemy, the Naiman Khan Kuchluk.

While Genghis Khan was conquering more and more cities and provinces of China, the fugitive Naiman Khan Kuchluk asked the gurkhan who had given him refuge to help gather the remnants of the army defeated at the Irtysh. Having gained a fairly strong army under his hand, Kuchluk entered into an alliance against his overlord with the Shah of Khorezm Muhammad, who had previously paid tribute to the Karakitays. After a short but decisive military campaign, the allies were left with a big gain, and the gurkhan was forced to relinquish power in favor of the uninvited guest. In 1213, Gurkhan Zhilugu died, and the Naiman khan became the sovereign ruler of Semirechye. Sairam, Tashkent, and the northern part of Fergana came under his power. Having become an irreconcilable opponent of Khorezm, Kuchluk began persecution of Muslims in his domains, which aroused the hatred of the settled population of Zhetysu. The ruler of Koylyk (in the valley of the Ili River) Arslan Khan, and then the ruler of Almalyk (northwest of modern Gulja) Bu-zar moved away from the Naimans and declared themselves subjects of Genghis Khan.

In 1218, Jebe's troops, together with the troops of the rulers of Koylyk and Almalyk, invaded the lands of the Karakitai. The Mongols conquered Semirechye and Eastern Turkestan, which were owned by Kuchluk. In the first battle, Jebe defeated the Naiman. The Mongols allowed Muslims to perform public worship, which had previously been prohibited by the Naiman, which contributed to the transition of the entire settled population to the side of the Mongols. Kuchluk, unable to organize resistance, fled to Afghanistan, where he was caught and killed. The residents of Balasagun opened the gates to the Mongols, for which the city received the name Gobalyk - “good city”. The road to Khorezm opened before Genghis Khan.

After the conquest of China and Khorezm, the supreme ruler of the Mongol clan leaders, Genghis Khan, sent a strong cavalry corps under the command of Jebe and Subedei to explore the “western lands”. They walked along the southern shore of the Caspian Sea, then, after the devastation of Northern Iran, they penetrated into Transcaucasia, defeated the Georgian army (1222) and, moving north along the western shore of the Caspian Sea, met a united army of Polovtsians, Lezgins, Circassians and Alans in the North Caucasus. A battle took place, which did not have decisive consequences. Then the conquerors split the ranks of the enemy. They gave gifts to the Polovtsians and promised not to touch them. The latter began to disperse to their nomadic camps. Taking advantage of this, the Mongols easily defeated the Alans, Lezgins and Circassians, and then defeated the Polovtsians piecemeal. At the beginning of 1223, the Mongols invaded Crimea, took the city of Surozh (Sudak) and again moved into the Polovtsian steppes.

The Polovtsians fled to Rus'. Leaving the Mongol army, Khan Kotyan, through his ambassadors, asked not to refuse him the help of his son-in-law Mstislav the Udal, as well as Mstislav III Romanovich, the ruling Grand Duke of Kyiv. At the beginning of 1223, a large princely congress was convened in Kiev, where it was agreed that the armed forces of the princes of Kiev, Galicia, Chernigov, Seversk, Smolensk and Volyn principalities, united, should support the Polovtsians. The Dnieper, near the island of Khortitsa, was appointed as the gathering place for the Russian united army. Here envoys from the Mongol camp were met, inviting the Russian military leaders to break the alliance with the Polovtsians and return to Rus'. Taking into account the experience of the Cumans (who in 1222 persuaded the Mongols to break their alliance with the Alans, after which Jebe defeated the Alans and attacked the Cumans), Mstislav executed the envoys. In the battle on the Kalka River, the troops of Daniil Galitsky, Mstislav the Udal and Khan Kotyan, without informing the other princes, decided to “deal with” the Mongols on their own and crossed to the eastern bank, where on May 31, 1223 they were completely defeated while passively contemplating this bloody battle on the part of the main Russian forces led by Mstislav III, located on the elevated opposite bank of the Kalka.

Mstislav III, having fenced himself off with a tyn, held the defense for three days after the battle, and then came to an agreement with Jebe and Subedai to lay down arms and freely retreat to Rus', as he had not participated in the battle. However, he, his army and the princes who trusted him were treacherously captured by the Mongols and cruelly tortured as “traitors to their own army.”

After the victory, the Mongols organized the pursuit of the remnants of the Russian army (only every tenth soldier returned from the Azov region), destroying cities and villages in the Dnieper direction, capturing civilians. However, the disciplined Mongol military leaders had no orders to linger in Rus'. They were soon recalled by Genghis Khan, who considered that the main task of the reconnaissance campaign to the west had been successfully completed. On the way back at the mouth of the Kama, the troops of Jebe and Subedei suffered a serious defeat from the Volga Bulgars, who refused to recognize the power of Genghis Khan over themselves. After this failure, the Mongols went down to Saksin and along the Caspian steppes returned to Asia, where in 1225 they united with the main forces of the Mongol army.

The Mongol forces remaining in China enjoyed the same success as the armies in Western Asia. The Mongol Empire was expanded with several new conquered provinces lying north of the Yellow River, with the exception of one or two cities. After the death of Emperor Xuyin Zong in 1223, the Northern Chinese Empire virtually ceased to exist, and the borders of the Mongol Empire almost coincided with the borders of Central and Southern China, ruled by the imperial Song dynasty.

Upon returning from Central Asia, Genghis Khan once again led his army through Western China. In 1225 or early 1226, Genghis launched a campaign against the Tangut country. During this campaign, astrologers informed the Mongol leader that five planets were in unfavorable alignment. The superstitious Mongol believed that he was in danger. Under the power of foreboding, the formidable conqueror went home, but on the way he fell ill and died on August 25, 1227.

After the death of Genghis Khan, his third son Ogedei became khan in 1229. During Ogedei's reign, the empire's borders expanded rapidly. In the northwest, Batu Khan (Batu) founded the Golden Horde and conquered the principalities of Rus' one after another, destroyed Kiev, and the next year attacked Central Europe, captured Poland, Bohemia, Hungary and reached the Adriatic Sea. Ogedei Khan organized a second campaign against northern China, which was ruled by the Liao dynasty, and in 1234 the war, which had lasted almost 20 years, ended. Immediately after this, Ogedei Khan declared war on the Song Dynasty of Southern China, which was ended by Kublai Khan in 1279.

In 1241, Ogedei and Chagadai died almost simultaneously and the khan's throne remained unoccupied. As a result of a five-year struggle for power, Guyuk became khan, but he died after one year of rule. In 1251, Tolui's son Mongke became khan. Munke Khan's son Hulagu crossed the Amu Darya River in 1256 and declared war on the Muslim world. His troops reached the Red Sea, conquered large lands and burned many cities. Hulagu captured the city of Baghdad and killed about 800 thousand people. The Mongols had never conquered such a rich and large city before. Hulagu planned to conquer northern Africa, but in 1251 Mongke Khan died in Karakorum. Due to the struggle between the two younger brothers Kublai and Arig-Bug for the throne, he had to interrupt his successful campaign. Later, Hulagu Khan created the Ilkhan state, which lasted for many years. Thus, to the west of Mongolia there were huge states (uluses) created by the children of Genghis Khan: the Golden Horde, the White Horde, the state of Hulagu, and the largest state, Yuan, was founded in 1260 by Kublai Khan, whose capital was the city of Beijing. Kublai and Arig-Bugha fought for a long time for the Khan's throne. After the death of his brother Möngke, Kublai fought in South China, where he urgently convened a kurultai (assembly) and was elected khan. At the same time, his younger brother Arig-Buga in Karakorum was elected khan, but Kublai sent troops against his brother and forced him to recognize himself as khan. The following year, Khubilai left Karakorum forever and went to Dadu, modern Beijing, and founded the Yuan Dynasty, which means "great beginning." The foundation of this dynasty was the beginning of the collapse of Great Mongolia and the beginning of the development of large independent states of the descendants of Genghis Khan. Kublai Khan continued the war in the south and captured southern China in 1272. The Yuan State was the strongest and most powerful state at that time. Kublai Khan continued to wage war in a southern direction and captured the Indochina peninsula, the islands of Java and Sumatra.

Kublai Khan made attempts to conquer Japan. Korea was already under the rule of the Mongol Khan, and he made attempts from there to attack Japan in 1274 and 1281.
During the first attack, the Mongols had 900 ships and 40 thousand soldiers. The second time there were already 4,400 ships and 140 thousand soldiers. It was the largest fleet during the reign of Kublai Khan. However, every Mongol attempt to capture Japan was thwarted by a typhoon and all the ships were sunk. Kublai Khan ruled the Yuan State for 34 years and died in 1294. After his death, the state of the Mongol Yuan dynasty lasted another 70 years until the dynasty was overthrown by the rebel Chinese during the reign of Khan Togon-Tumur. The capital of the Mongol Khan was moved back to Karakorum. Another state founded by the descendants of Genghis Khan, Jochi and Batu, was the Golden Horde.

Over time, the empire split into several small states. Thus, in the territory from the Altai Mountains to the Black Sea, many nationalities of Turkic origin appeared, such as Bashkirs, Tatars, Circassians, Khakassians, Nogais, Kabardians, Crimean Tatars, etc. Mavaranahr, which arose on the territory of the Chagadai state, was powerful during the reign of Tumur- Khan, captured territories from Baghdad to China, but also collapsed. The Ilkhan Empire of Hulagu revived briefly during the period of Ghazan Khan, but soon Persia, the Arab state, and Turkey began to revive and the 500-year rule of the Ottoman Empire was established. Without a doubt, the Mongols were the dominant people in the 13th century, and Mongolia became famous throughout the world.

After the fall of the Yuan Dynasty, the Mongols who lived there returned to their homeland and lived there freely until they were captured by the Manchus. This time is marked in history as the period of small khans; without a single khan, the Mongols were divided into separate principalities. Of the forty tumens, or principalities, that existed during the time of Genghis Khan, by that time only six remained. There were also 4 Oirat tumens. Therefore, the whole of Mongolia was sometimes called “forty and four.” The Oirats, first of all, wanted to control all the Mongols, and therefore there was a constant struggle for power. Taking advantage of this, the Chinese regularly attacked the Mongols and one day reached Karakorum and destroyed it. In the 16th century Dayan Khan united the Mongols again, but after his death the struggle for the throne began. Over the course of 10 years, 5 khans changed on the throne and the state eventually ceased to exist.

When Dayan Khan's youngest son Geresendze seized power, the name Khalkha was assigned to Northern Mongolia. He divided it among his seven sons. This is how the first administrative units of khoshuns (districts) were formed. The Mongolian nobility quarreled a lot with each other, they came up with various titles and titles that elevated them. Abatai, the grandson of Geresenedze, called himself Tushetu Khan, his cousin Sholoy called himself Setsen Khan, and Luikhar Zasagtu Khan. During the Manchu Qing dynasty in 1752, the aimag of Sain-Noyon Khan broke away from the territory of the aimags of Tushetu Khan and Zasag Khan.

MONGOLIA DURING THE MANCHU QING DYNASTY

At the beginning of the 17th century. The Manchus, who lived in the northeast of what is now China, unexpectedly quickly began to gain strength. They attacked the fragmented Mongol tribes and forced them to pay tribute. In 1636, the Manchus annexed Inner Mongolia. After capturing Beijing in 1644, they founded the Qing Dynasty and unified all of China within two years. They then turned their attention north towards Mongolia. As a result of conflicts between the Khalkhas and Oirats, as well as the skillful instigation of quarrels on the part of Tibet, the Manchus managed to annex Mongolia in 1696.

After the signing of the agreement between the Qing Empire and Russia in 1725 in Kyakhta, the Russian-Chinese border was completely defined. Taking advantage of the weakness of the splintered Oirats, a Manchu army of 50 thousand soldiers defeated them and annexed them into the empire in 1755. Thus, the Manchus annexed Mongolia to China after 130 years of effort. In 1755-1757 The Oirats began an uprising, and at the same time the Khalkhas resisted. As a precaution against the Mongols, military units were stationed in Ulyasutai. Administratively, Mongolia was divided into 4 Khalkha and 2 Derbet aimags with a total of 125 khoshuns (an administrative unit during the reign of the Manchus). Since the Bogdo Gegen Jabdzundamba supported Amarsana, the leader of the uprising, Beijing decided to invite subsequent Bogdo Gegen only from Tibet. The residence of Bogdo Gegen was located in Da Khuree (Urga). Later, an amban office was created in Kobdo and a customs office in Kyakhta. The Ministry of Mongolian Affairs "Jurgan" was opened in Beijing, through which relations were established between the Mongols and the Manchu-Chinese Empire. The Manchus themselves were half nomads. Therefore, to prevent Sinicization, they banned all relations between the Mongols and the Chinese. Chinese traders were only allowed to enter Mongolia for a short time and along a specific route and were prohibited from living here permanently or conducting any other activities other than trade.

Thus, Mongolia was at that time a vassal province of the Manchu Qing Empire with special rights. But later the small population of Manchuria was assimilated by the Chinese.

FIGHT FOR INDEPENDENCE

Early 20th century found Mongolia on the verge of complete impoverishment and ruin. The Manchu yoke had a detrimental effect not only on the material living conditions of the Mongolian people, but also on their physical condition. At the same time, there were many foreign merchants and moneylenders in the country, in whose hands enormous wealth accumulated. Discontent grew increasingly in the country, resulting in spontaneous uprisings of the arats against the Manchu authorities. Thus, by 1911, real conditions were emerging for a national struggle in Mongolia to overthrow more than two centuries of the Manchu yoke. In July 1911, in Urga (now Ulaanbaatar), a meeting was held secretly from the Manchu authorities, in which the largest secular and spiritual leaders, led by Bogdo Gegen (His Serene Bogdo), took part. Taking into account the new course of Manchu policy and the mood of the Mongol people, the meeting participants recognized it as impossible for Mongolia to remain under the rule of the Qing dynasty any longer. At this time, the national liberation movement was rapidly developing throughout the country, starting from Urga and ending with the province of Khovd.

December 1, 1911 an appeal was published to the Mongolian people, which said: “Our Mongolia from the very beginning of its existence was an independent state, and therefore, according to ancient law, Mongolia declares itself an independent power from others in the conduct of its affairs. In view of the above, it is declared that we, Mongols, from now on we do not submit to the Manchu and Chinese officials, whose power is completely destroyed, and as a result they must go home." On December 4, 1911, the Manchu Amban Sando and his other officials left Urga for China.

December 29, 1911 In Urga, in the Dzun-khuree monastery, a ceremony took place for the head of the Lamaist Church, Bogdo Gegen, who received the title “Elevated by Many,” to the khan’s throne. Thus, as a result of the liberation movement of the Mongolian arats, the country threw off the Manchu yoke and expelled the hated Manchu bureaucracy. Thus, more than two hundred years after the liquidation of Mongolian statehood by the Manchus, the latter was restored in the form of an unlimited feudal-theocratic monarchy, which was an objectively progressive phenomenon and the history of our country.

A government with five ministries was formed and the city of Khuree was declared the capital. After the liberation of Kobdo, they were joined by the Oirats, as well as Barga and most of the Khoshuns of Inner Mongolia. As a result of long disputes in 1915 A historical tripartite Russian-Mongolian-Chinese agreement was concluded in Kyakhta. China wanted to completely subjugate Mongolia, which the Mongols fiercely resisted. Russia was interested in creating autonomy only in Outer Mongolia and sought this. After years of disputes, Mongolia agreed that Inner Mongolia would be completely subordinated to China, and Outer Mongolia would be an autonomy with special rights under Chinese suzerainty. At this time, a fierce struggle was going on in China. A representative of one of the factions, Xu Shuzheng, arrived in Mongolia with troops and canceled the agreement of the three states and dissolved the government of Bogdo Gegen.

December 29, 2007 Mongolia will celebrate National Freedom Day for the first time. This day is celebrated in accordance with the amendments introduced by Parliament in August 2007 to the law on general holidays and significant dates.

PERIOD OF REVOLUTIONARY TRANSFORMATIONS 1919-1924

In 1917, the October Revolution took place in Russia. Then there was a long civil war. Mongolia, having lost its autonomy, asked for help from different states. Bodoo and Danzan, representatives of the People's Party, visited Russia. But Soviet Russia viewed Mongolia as part of China and refused to expel Chinese troops from the country.

The Mongolian people's army under the command of Sukhbaatar and units of the Soviet Red Army that came to the aid of the Mongolian people in May - August 1921 defeated the White Guard troops of Lieutenant General Baron Ungern von Sternberg. On July 6, 1921, Urga (now Ulaanbaatar) was liberated. On July 10, the Provisional People's Government was reorganized into a permanent People's Government; Sukhbaatar became part of it, taking the post of Minister of War. Soviet Russia did not agree with Mongolia's independence, but in 1921 it recognized the government led by Bodoo. The new government carried out the coronation of Bogdo Gegen and established a limited monarchy. Serfdom was also abolished and a course was set for the creation of a modern and civilized state.

Moscow and Beijing have been delaying the solution to the problem of Mongolia's independence for a long time. Finally, in May 1924, the Soviet Union and the Chinese Government signed an agreement that Mongolia was part of China. Also, the Soviet Union reached an agreement with the leaders of the Chinese Kuomintang to carry out the Red Revolution throughout China, including Mongolia. Thus, Mongolia became the object of inexplicable and poorly consistent agreements between the Soviet Union, the Chinese Government and the Kuomintang leaders.

1924 Mongolia declared the formation of the People's Republic and adopted a Constitution. After the death of Bogd Khan Jebdzundamba, it became necessary to choose a form of government for Mongolia. During the development of the new constitution, the first State Khural was convened. The Khural did not accept the first draft of this constitution, accusing the constitutional commission of copying the constitutions of capitalist countries. A new draft constitution was developed in Moscow, which was adopted. The capital Khuree was renamed Ulaanbaatar. The main significance of the Constitution is that it proclaimed the formation of the People's Republic. The prime minister of Mongolia at that time was Tserendorj.

In 1925, the USSR withdrew units of the Red Army after eliminating the remnants of the White Guard gangs in Mongolia. The note from the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs of the USSR G.V. Chicherin dated January 24, 1925 stated: “The USSR Government believes that the presence of Soviet troops within the Mongolian People’s Republic is no longer necessary.”

At the end of May 1921, Baron Ungern with his “Wild Division” invaded Transbaikalia from Mongolia, hoping to stir up an anti-communist uprising. This was the “favorable moment” that Moscow had been waiting for. The Soviet government had a reason for the Soviet troops to march into Mongolia. In bloody battles on Soviet territory, Ungern's main forces were defeated, their remnants retreated to Mongolia.
On June 16, the Politburo of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) adopted a resolution on a military campaign in Mongolia. On July 7, troops of the RSFSR, Far Eastern Republic and a few “Red Mongolian” units, without encountering any resistance, entered Urga (Ulaanbaatar). Ungern eliminated Chinese influence in Mongolia by proclaiming its independence. In this way, he greatly helped Soviet Russia establish its influence in Mongolia.
At that moment, Ungern comes up with another incredible plan. In view of his defeat in Mongolia, he decided to move with the remnants of the “Wild Division” through the impassable Gobi Desert into Tibet in order to enter the service of the 13th Dalai Lama. But his soldiers opposed this plan. The Baron was tied up by his rebellious subordinates and thrown into the steppes, where he was picked up by Red Army scouts. After a short trial, on September 16, 1921, Ungern was shot in Novonikolaevsk (Novosibirsk).
The leaders of the Soviet campaign noted in reports to Moscow: “The main condition for a free, painless advance deep into Mongolia is the preservation of the friendly attitude of the native population, (which) suffered severely from the requisitions of the white bandits.”
On July 11, 1921, Mongolian revolutionaries proclaimed Mongolia a socialist state - the MPR (Mongolian People's Republic) and formed the People's Government. The new political reality was consolidated by the official request of the People's Government of Moscow not to withdraw Red Army units from Mongolia.
Many of the Mongolian revolutionaries studied in Russia or Mongolia in courses where Russian teachers worked. For example, Sukhbaatar graduated from machine gun courses in Urga, Bodo taught at the school of translators at the Russian consulate. Choibolsan studied at the school at the Irkutsk Teachers' Institute for several years. Education in Russia was free or very cheap, and the travel and accommodation of Mongolian youth was paid for by the government of Bogdo-Gegen (formed in Mongolia in 1911).
In October - November 1921, a delegation of the MPR, which included Sukhbaatar, visited Moscow. The Mongolian delegation was received by V.I. Lenin. In a conversation with its representatives, the head of the Soviet government said that the only way for the Mongols was to fight for the complete independence of the country. For this struggle, he noted, the Mongols urgently need “a political and state organization.” On November 5, an agreement was signed to establish Soviet-Mongolian relations.
Soviet Russia defended its interests in Mongolia. Of course, this naturally created a threat to Chinese interests in Mongolia. States in the international arena seek to harm each other's interests; each of them, based on its own strategic considerations, pursues its own political line.
The Beijing government has repeatedly demanded the withdrawal of Red Army units from Mongolia. In August 1922, the second delegation of the RSFSR, headed by A.A., arrived in Beijing to establish Soviet-Chinese diplomatic relations. Ioffe. The Chinese side put forward the “Mongolian question” - the question of the presence of Soviet troops in Mongolia - as a pretext for delaying negotiations. The head of the Soviet delegation emphasized then that Soviet Russia “does not harbor” aggressive and selfish goals towards Mongolia. What could he say?
During the Soviet-Chinese negotiations in 1924 (in which the Soviet side was represented by the Soviet plenipotentiary in China L.M. Karakhan), difficulties also arose regarding the “Mongolian question.” The Beijing government advocated that the Sino-Soviet agreement would annul all Soviet-Mongolian treaties and agreements. Beijing was against the fact that in these documents the USSR and Mongolia acted as two states. The Chinese government insisted on the immediate withdrawal of Soviet troops from Mongolia. Beijing did not agree that the condition for their withdrawal would be the establishment of a Mongolian-Chinese border.
May 22 L.M. Karakhan handed over to the Chinese side amendments to the agreement, which the Soviet side was ready to accept. Soon, the Chinese Foreign Minister, for his part, made concessions; he agreed with the Soviet plenipotentiary's proposal not to annul a number of Soviet-Mongolian treaties. In the Soviet-Chinese agreement of May 31, 1924, it was decided to raise the issue of the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Mongolia at the Soviet-Chinese conference.
In June 1924, in connection with the death of the theocratic head of state Bogdo-Gegen, the Central Committee of the MPRP (Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party) and the People's Government of Mongolia spoke out in favor of the formation of a people's republic. In November 1924, the Great People's Khural declared Mongolia an independent people's republic. In fact, it turned into a Soviet sphere of influence.
In Mongolia, Moscow was able to implement the Comintern’s directive to provide support to the national revolutionary movement in the East. Here Moscow, contrary to the teachings of K. Marx, conducted a unique political experiment, starting the construction of socialism, bypassing the stage of capitalism. But most Mongolian revolutionaries dreamed not of this, but of the fact that Soviet Russia would support the Mongols in their quest for independence. And no more. In this regard, the death in 1923 of the young Sukhbaatar, the head of the conservative group in the Mongolian government and the main supporter of the national revolution, cannot but look suspicious.

Opolev Vitaly Grigorievich. Soviet military expedition to Mongolia on July 7, 1921. Establishment of official relations between the RSFSR and Mongolia on November 5, 1921. Soviet-Chinese agreement of May 31, 1924

MPR IN THE PRE-WAR YEARS. POLITICAL REPRESSION

1928 Supporters of the Comintern, the so-called “leftists,” came to power. With relations with Kuomintang China deteriorating, the Soviet Union and the Comintern began working to establish a communist society in Mongolia. However, the leaders of Mongolia tried to follow an independent policy, not taking into account the opinion of Moscow, but the VII Congress of the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party removed them from power.

Early 30s. Confiscation of property from the rich and prosperous arats. At the direction of the Comintern, the confiscation of property and livestock from the population began. The monasteries were devastated. Many people tried to hide their property and were arrested. For example, 5,191 people were sent to one of the central prisons. Even after these measures, the party decided that this was not enough, and a new confiscation campaign was organized, during which many ordinary people died. At that time, one sheep cost 50 tugriks, and property worth 9.7-10 million tugriks was confiscated.

Prime Minister Choibalsan was a consistent supporter of Stalin. Taking advantage of the fact that the head of Mongolia, Peljidiin Genden, had lost the trust of Stalin (in particular, due to the fact that he refused to carry out mass repressions against Buddhist monks and force the introduction of a centralized economy), in 1936 Choibalsan contributed to his removal from power, shortly after which Genden was arrested and executed. Choibalsan, who was the Minister of Defense at that time, did not formally occupy the highest position in the state for several years, but already then he became a leader and carried out massive repressions, destroying not only his opponents in the party, but also former aristocrats, monks and many other “undesirable categories” " According to modern Mongolian historians, Choibalsan was perhaps the most despotic leader of Mongolia over the last century. At the same time, thanks to his actions, mass literacy was achieved in Mongolia (Choibalsan abolished the rather complex ancient Mongolian alphabet and introduced the Cyrillic alphabet), the country turned from an agricultural one into an agrarian-industrial one. Although the Choibolsan regime is criticized by contemporaries, they also note Choibolsan’s efforts to preserve the independence of Mongolia.

On September 10, 1937, mass persecution began, so this period remained in history as the “years of great repression.” During these years, tens of thousands of innocent people were shot and thrown into dungeons, hundreds of monasteries were destroyed, and many cultural monuments were destroyed. In his notebook, Prime Minister Choibalsan noted that 56,938 people were arrested. At that time, the total population of Mongolia was only 700 thousand people. To date, 29 thousand repressed people have been rehabilitated, the state has issued compensation to the repressed and their relatives. Today, people whose archival materials were not found have not been rehabilitated.

MONGOLIA DURING THE SECOND WORLD WAR

1939 Fighting at Khalkhin Gol. In the mid-1930s, the Japanese created the puppet state of Manchukuo and began a dispute over the border with Mongolia. In May 1939 it escalated into an armed conflict. The Soviet Union sent its troops to help Mongolia. The Kwantung Army, having brought in additional forces, began a war that lasted until September. In September 1939, in Moscow, by agreement between the four countries of Mongolia, Manchukuo, the USSR and Japan, this war, which claimed 70 thousand lives, was officially ended. During the joint military operations of Soviet and Mongolian troops to defeat the Japanese militarists in the area of ​​the Khalkhin Gol River in 1939 and the Kwantung Army in the Manchurian Operation of 1945, Choibalsan was the commander-in-chief of the MNRA.

During the Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Union (1941-1945), Mongolia, to the best of its ability, provided assistance in its fight against Nazi Germany. About half a million horses were transferred to the Soviet Union; funds raised by the Mongolian people were used to create tank column And air squadron of fighter aircraft. Dozens of trains with warm clothes, food and various gifts were also sent to the front. At the final stage of the Second World War, the Mongolian People's Army, as part of a cavalry-mechanized group of Soviet-Mongolian troops, took part in the defeat of militaristic Japan.

1942 Mongolian State University was founded. Mongolia's first university was founded during World War II. Many outstanding professors came from the USSR and took part in its opening. Mongolia began to train its professional personnel, which served as a powerful impetus for the cultural and social development of the country. Mongolia also sent many students to study in the USSR. In the 20th century About 54 thousand Mongols were educated in the USSR, of which 16 thousand received higher education. They began to develop their country and turned it into a state of the 20th century.

1945 A plebiscite was held on the issue of Mongolia's independence. The Yalta Agreement recognized the status quo of Mongolia. The Chinese government decided that if the Mongols confirmed their independence, then China would agree to recognize it. In October 1945, a nationwide plebiscite was organized. On its basis, on January 6, 1946, China, and on November 27, 1946, the USSR recognized the independence of Mongolia. The struggle for independence, which lasted almost 40 years, successfully ended and Mongolia became a truly independent state.

PERIOD OF SOCIALISM

In 1947, a railway line was built connecting Naushki and Ulaanbaatar. Only in 1954, the construction of the trans-Mongolian railway with a length of more than 1,100 km, which connected the GCC and the People's Republic of China, was completed. The construction of the railway, carried out in accordance with the Agreement between the Government of the Mongolian People's Republic and the USSR on the establishment of the Soviet-Mongolian joint-stock company "Ulaanbaatar Railway" of 1949, was and continues to be important for the socio-economic development of Mongolia.

1956 The Cultural Revolution began. A campaign was launched to improve public health. It was necessary to introduce civilized life and modern culture into Mongolia. As a result of three cultural attacks, hotbeds of the spread of sexually transmitted diseases and illiteracy were destroyed, Mongolia joined the achievements of scientific and technological progress. Now there are many intelligent, modern people in the country.

1959 In general, the collectivization of pastoralists was completed. The development of agriculture and the development of virgin lands began. Based on the Soviet example, work began on “voluntary” collectivization. In 1959, the development of virgin lands marked the development of a new branch of agriculture, which resulted in one of the largest revolutions in the history of Mongolia.

1960 The population of Ulaanbaatar reached 100,000 people. People moved to Ulaanbaatar in large numbers. The urbanization of Mongolia began. This led to changes in the social sphere and industry. With the help of the USSR and then the CMEA member countries, the basis of the country's industry was created.

1961 Mongolia became a member of the UN. Since 1946, Mongolia has been trying to become a member of the UN, but the West and China prevented this for a long time. After Mongolia became a member of the UN and other international organizations, it was recognized throughout the world.

In the early 60s of the 20th century, relations between the USSR and China deteriorated and led to armed clashes on the border. In 1967, the Soviet Union sent troops into Mongolia, the total number of Soviet military personnel reached 75-80 thousand. China has concentrated troops on its northern borders.

During the Cold War, Mongolia was able to take loans from the USSR. Soviet Union during from 1972 to 1990. allocated 10 billion rubles to Mongolia. This money gave impetus to social and economic development. In 1972, construction began on a mining and processing plant for the production of copper and molybdenum concentrate in Erdenet, which began operations in 1980. This largest plant laid the foundation for major changes in the Mongolian economy. This plant is one of the top ten world leaders and has become a major factor in changing the structure of Mongolia's economy. By 2010, the Russian-Mongolian joint mining and processing plant Erdenet, whose injections into the Mongolian state budget account for half of it, will begin exporting copper with the “Made in Mongolia” label.

Zhugderdemidiin Gurragcha - the first cosmonaut of Mongolia, completed a space flight from March 22 to March 30, 1981 as a cosmonaut-researcher on the Soyuz-39 spacecraft (crew commander V.A. Dzhanibekov) and the Salyut-6 orbital research complex - the Soyuz T-4 spacecraft, where the main expedition crew worked commander V.V. Kovalyonok and flight engineer V.P. Savinykh. The duration of stay in space was 7 days 20 hours 42 minutes 3 seconds.

In August 1984 It was as if thunder struck from a clear sky: the main dargah (leader) of Mongolia, Yu. Tsedenbal, was released from the posts of First Secretary of the MPRP Central Committee, Chairman of the Great People's Khural, and, as officially reported, “taking into account the state of his health and with his consent.” Many, perplexed, believed that this was apparently ordered by the Kremlin, which was counting on the rejuvenation of the leadership cadres in the fraternal countries. In 1984, Tsedenbal moved with his wife Anastasia Ivanovna Tsedenbal-Filatova and sons Vladislav and Zorig to Moscow. The new Mongolian authorities did not even allow him to spend a vacation in his homeland, which also contributed to the oblivion of the dargah. At the funeral in 1991 at the Ulan Bator cemetery “Altan Ulgiy” only family and close friends were present. Currently, Anastasia Ivanovna Tsedenbal-Filatova and her son Vladislav are no longer alive. By presidential decree, the former leader of Mongolia, Yumzhagiin Tsedenbal, was rehabilitated, all his awards and the rank of marshal were restored.

DEMOCRATIC TRANSFORMATIONS

In mid-1986, by decision of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the USSR M.S. Gorbachev began the withdrawal of Soviet troops from the territory of the MPR. At the same time, the repeated statements of the Mongolian government that Mongolia would not be able to ensure its sovereignty without the help of the USSR were not taken into account.

In 1989, the communist system was collapsing around the world. The Tiananmen movement arose in China, and Eastern European countries chose democracy and freedom. On December 10, 1989, the creation of the Democratic Union of Mongolia was announced. Soon the Democratic Party of Mongolia and the Social Democratic Party of Mongolia were created, which demanded changes in social structure countries. In the summer, the first free elections were held in Mongolia. The first parliament of the Small Khural began to work on a permanent basis. P. Ochirbat was elected the first President of Mongolia. Thus, Mongolia became a free and independent state and moved towards an open society and a market economy.

The withdrawal of troops from Mongolia took 28 months. On February 4, 1989, a Soviet-Chinese agreement was signed to reduce the number of troops on the border. On May 15, 1989, the Soviet leadership announced the partial and then complete withdrawal of the 39th Army of the Trans-Baikal Military District from Mongolia. The army included two tank and three motorized rifle divisions - more than 50 thousand military personnel, 1816 tanks, 2531 armored vehicles, 1461 artillery systems, 190 aircraft and 130 helicopters. On September 25, 1992, the completion of the troop withdrawal was officially announced. The last Russian soldiers left Mongolia in December 1992.

During the withdrawal of troops, hundreds of apartment buildings, a huge number of barracks, clubs, officers' houses, hospitals (in each garrison), school buildings, kindergartens, etc., etc. were transferred to the Mongolian side. The Mongols, accustomed to living in their yurts, were unable and unwilling to use the buildings abandoned by the Soviet group, and soon it was all destroyed and looted.

In May 1991 The Great People's Khural made a decision on privatization. Livestock was completely privatized by 1993. At that time, the livestock population numbered 22 million heads, but now it is more than 39 million (at the end of 2007). To date, 80% of state property has been privatized.

January 13, 1992 Mongolia approved a democratic Constitution and declared the formation of a republic with parliamentary governance.

The last elections to the State Great Khural took place in 2004. Due to the fact that none of the political parties was able to take a majority of seats in parliament, a coalition government was formed.

MONGOLIA TODAY

In April 2007, the population of Ulaanbaatar exceeded 1,000,000 people.

July 1, 2008, after the latest parliamentary elections, police clashed with demonstrators in Ulaanbaatar, who set fire to the headquarters of the ruling party. According to Mongolian television, five people were killed and about 400 police officers were injured as a result of the unrest. Several journalists were also injured; a correspondent from Japan is in intensive care.

The clashes began after the opposition accused the ruling Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) - the former Communist Party - of rigging the results of the parliamentary elections that took place on Sunday June 29, 2008. In the Russian press, these riots were called the “cashmere revolution.” Now the streets of Ulaanbaatar are calm. (July 2008).

On June 18, 2009, the leader of the opposition took office as president Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, he became the 4th President of Mongolia.

Long before the birth of Temujin (Genghis Khan), who created the great Mongol state, his ancestors inhabited vast areas from the Great Wall of China to the headwaters of the Selenga River. Chinese chroniclers called these tribes Mengu and divided them into white, black and wild. The Mongols themselves called themselves differently. Those who lived in the basin of the Onon, Kerulen and Tola rivers were called Khamag-Mongols; those who lived on the Onon River - jalairs; wandering between the valley of the Onon River and the upper reaches of the Selenga - Taichiuts; between the Khangai and Khentei ranges - Kereits. To the west of their nomads, in the valleys of the Khangai and Altai mountains, the Naimans grazed their herds. The upper reaches of the Selenga were the possessions of the Merkits. In the north, they bordered on the lands of the “forest” tribes - trappers and fishermen who lived in deep taiga forests. In Transbaikalia lived the tribes of Khori, Bargut, Tumet, Bulagachin, Keremuchin, Uriankhai, Urasut and Telenguts, and in the Eight Rivers region - the Oirats.

On its territory, each tribe determined lands for the nomads of its constituent clans and families. The Mongols roamed in kurens - communities that numbered up to a thousand families. At the camps they were located in a ring. In the center was the leader's headquarters, and along the edges of the ring there were hitching posts, carts and cattle pens. All this constituted a kind of fortification.

The leaders of the tribes had sonorous nicknames: bator - hero, sechen - wisdom, mergen - sharp shooter, bilge - wise, buke - strongman. They led the warriors of one or more tribes in clashes with neighbors over pastures or hunting grounds. In wartime, and subsequently in peacetime, the tribal nobility - noyons - gathered around the leader. Each of them had a group of fellow tribesmen - nukers, who essentially made up a noyon squad, brave and devoted to their leader.

With a large and combat-ready squad, a noyon could keep his neighbors in obedience and proclaim himself a khan. But as soon as he did not please his nuker friends, lost a battle or lost his herds - his main wealth, his well-being

ESUY AND ESUGAN

Genghis Khan had a wife named Yesugan, whom he loved very much for her intelligence and beauty.

Yesugan was very sad about the misfortune that befell her family and friends, the entire Tatar people. The Terrible Khan did not forget that the Tatars killed his father, and ordered to destroy them all, “to make food for Mongol swords.” Who was killed on the battlefield, who was finished off by being captured. Neither women nor old people were left alive; they even killed children, measuring them by cart receipt- Who the one above is death, and the one below- slavery. Only a few survived.

And so Yesugan decided to save at least her sister Yesui from inevitable death. One day she told her husband: “I have a beautiful sister. She deserves you more than me.” Genghis Khan grinned and asked his wife: “Is it really so, will you give up your place to her?” "I'll give in"- answered Yesugan.

Prehistoric period

Neolithic and Copper Age

Bronze Age

In the 2nd millennium BC. e. During the Bronze Age, the influence of the Karasuk culture was felt in western Mongolia. Numerous Deer stones and mini-mounds, known as “Keregsüren”, date back to this period; according to other theories, the “deer stones” date back to the 8th-7th centuries. BC e.

Iron Age

A large Iron Age burial complex of the 5th-3rd centuries, also used later, during the time of the Xiongnu, was excavated by archaeologists near Ulangom in the Ubsunur aimak.

Until the 20th century, some historians assumed that the Scythians originated from Mongolia, which was reflected in Russian literature (Alexander Blok: “Yes, we are Scythians! Yes, we are Asians!”). In the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. The area of ​​residence of the Scythians reached the west of Mongolia. The mummy of a 30-40 year old Scythian warrior, about 2500 years old, with blond hair, was discovered in the Mongolian part of the Altai Mountains.

Ancestors of the Mongols

It can be recognized that political life in Mongolia developed only in its northwestern part, as well as along its eastern and southern outskirts, while the middle Gobi remained deserted from time immemorial, and secondly, that more than 25 centuries BC in all Hordes of nomads roamed the above-mentioned places of Mongolia, whose primary occupation was cattle breeding. In terms of their tribal composition, these hordes, at least those living in the north and east, were very diverse, and although the Chinese all of them were known under the single name “Beidi,” that is, northern barbarians, there is nevertheless reason to assume that among them they were not only Mongols, but also Tatars and Manchus.

Each nation received its name from the name of the sovereign house by which it was ruled. In Southern Mongolia, immigrants from China were constantly mixed into the main population. It is known, for example, that in 1797 BC. e. The Chinese appanage prince Gongliu retired to Mongolia and began to lead a nomadic life here. Waging constant internecine wars, the tribes of Mongolia sometimes entered into alliances with each other, and usually raided China, which sent gifts to the leaders of the tribes and thereby paid off their invasions. When from 480 BC. e. China was divided into seven destinies; the nomads of Mongolia often served one destinies against others. This order of things taught the nomads even more to raid China, and the Chinese began to push them north with their combined forces. Among the early proto-Mongol tribes, the Xianbi tribal union stands out, which concluded with China in the middle of the 1st century AD. e. alliance against the Northern Xiongnu. The Syanbis inflicted the first serious defeat on the Xiongnu in 87 AD. e. At the beginning of the 2nd century, the Xianbeans were already so strong that they launched raids on China, but suffered constant setbacks. In 141, the great Xianbi commander and emperor Tanshihuai was born. He becomes the emperor (elder) of the Xianbi at the age of 14, after 2 years he inflicts damage on the Dinglin people and a crushing defeat on the Xiongnu and forces them out of the Transbaikal steppe. In 166, Tanshihuai repels the Chinese who invaded the Xianbei lands. The first Mongol emperor died in 181. The Xianbei state of Toba-Wei lasted until the middle of the third century.

From ancient times to the 12th century

Three centuries BC. e. three strong fiefs, having driven out the “northern barbarians,” were fortified on their side with long walls, and after the unification of China under the rule of Qin Shi Huang, these separate walls were connected and formed one Great Wall of China. Among the nomads pushed to the north by 214 BC. e. Three strong khanates were formed: in Eastern Mongolia - Donghu, in Central Mongolia - the largest, Xiongnu, from Ordos throughout Khalkha, and to the west of Ordos - Yuezhi. The ruler of the Xiongnu, Mode-shanyu (209-174), conquered Donghu (the ancestors of the modern Mongols), scattered the Yuezhi (Aryans) and united the entire territory of Turan under his rule, founded the Xiongnu empire, stretching from the borders of Manchuria in the east to the Kazakh steppes in the west and from the Great Wall in the south to the current borders of Russia in the north.

The process of feudalization began among the Oirats later than among other Mongol tribes, but proceeded quickly. Oirat rulers ( Taishi), having gotten rid of dependence on the Mongol Khan, they themselves took active action. Togon Taishi won a major victory over the Eastern Mongols in 1434 and even tried to proclaim himself the Great Mongol Khan. His son Esen-taishi became the de facto ruler of all Mongolia. In 1449, Esen defeated a half-million Chinese army and captured the emperor (see Tumu disaster). The Eastern Mongolian feudal lords, led by Daisun Khan, made an attempt to get rid of Oirat rule. However, in 1452, Esen won a decisive victory over the Eastern Mongols, and in 1454 he proclaimed himself the Great Khan of Mongol. This was a flagrant violation of Mongol laws, for Esen was not a descendant of Genghis Khan. In 1455, Esen fell victim to civil strife.

Manduhai Khatun, unifier of Mongolia

Around 1479, seven-year-old Batu Mongke, a descendant of Genghis Khan, was proclaimed Great Mongol Khan. He began to be called “Dayan Khan”, that is, “Great Yuan Khan”. His uncle's widow, Manduhai Khatun, who became his wife, personally led a military campaign against the Oirats. The victory over the Oirats ended their claims to dominance throughout Mongolia. As a result of subsequent military campaigns, all of Mongolia came under the rule of Dayan Khan, his headquarters was located on the Kerulen River.

In 1488, Dayan Khan sent a letter to the Chinese court in which he asked for consent to accept tribute from him. He received such consent (“tribute” China called actual interstate trade). However, already in 1495 the Mongols began military operations against China, and in 1500 Dayan Khan moved his headquarters to the conquered Ordos. In 1504, Dayan Khan again turned to the Chinese court with a request to accept tribute from him. Despite the consent of the Chinese court, in the same year the Mongols launched a devastating attack on Datong and other border areas of China. Peaceful trade with China ceased completely for 70 years. From 1514 to 1526, Dayan Khan carried out annual attacks on the northern regions of China, repeatedly reaching the outskirts of Beijing.

The united Mongolia did not last long. Soon after the death of Dayan Khan in 1543, the first internecine conflict broke out. In the 16th century, Mongolia again split into a number of principalities: it was divided between the sons of Dayan Khan. From this time on, among the Eastern Mongols they began to distinguish between the northern (Khalkhas) and the southern (Tumets, Ordosians, Chakhars). Somewhat later, in the west of Khalkha-Mongolia, a relative of Dayan Khan, Sholoy-Ubashi- huntaiji(1567-1630) the state of Altyn Khans was formed, which became a stronghold in the struggle of the Eastern Mongols with the Oirats.

A significant place among the princes of Southern Mongolia was occupied by Tumeti Altan Khan (1543-1582), who in 1554 founded the city of Guihuacheng (modern Hohhot). After the death of Dayan Khan, he took a leading position among the Eastern Mongols. In 1552, Altan Khan launched a campaign against the Oirats, who began to threaten the positions of the Eastern Mongols in Ordos and Kukunar. The Oirats were defeated by him. The Eastern Mongol princes took advantage of the disunity of the Oirats and their weakening as a result of Altan Khan’s campaign, organizing a series of military campaigns against the Oirats. As a result, the bulk of the Oirats were pushed out to the Mongolian Altai region and completely cut off from the markets of China.

At the beginning of the 17th century, Mongolia was a series of independent possessions located on three sides of the Gobi Desert. The nominal title of All-Mongol Khan and his seal belonged to the head of the Chakhar Khanate, Ligdan Khan (ruled 1604-1634), since he was considered the eldest among the descendants of Genghis Khan. Ligdan Khan fought unsuccessfully to unify the country in the face of Manchu aggression. Feudal separatism intensified so much that at the beginning of the 17th century, many Mongol princes were more willing to become vassals of the Manchu Khan than of the Mongol Khan.

The creator of the Manchu state, Nurhatsi, and his son Abahai understood that the task of conquering vast China was impossible without the conquest of Southern Mongolia. To conquer it, Narkhatsi and Abahai used tactics aimed at fragmenting the Mongol forces. In the 1620s, Nurhatsi managed to subjugate most of the principalities of Southern Mongolia.

The change in the foreign policy situation in the region contributed to the consolidation of the Oirat tribes, which led to the formation of a strong centralized state - the Dzungarian Zanate; the time of its formation dates back to 1635, when the head of the Choros tribe Batur - huntaiji united the Oirat tribes.

Khalkha Mongolia became the arena of struggle between the Dzungar Khanate and the Qing Empire. The Qings managed to persuade some of the rulers of Khalkha to accept the citizenship of the Manchu emperor. This state of affairs worried the Dzungar Khan Galdan, who intervened in the strife in Khalkha Mongolia. This led to the Oirat-Qing War in 1690. In 1697, Galdan suffered complete defeat and committed suicide; Khalkha Mongolia was included in the Qing Empire. In 1715, the Oirats tried to return Khalkha. The Qing Empire at this time was in a difficult situation, and tried to conclude a military alliance against the Dzungar Khanate with the Volga Kalmyks and Russia. In 1739, both sides, exhausted by long wars, concluded a peace treaty, according to which a significant part of the previously lost territories was returned to the Khanate.

After the death of Galdan-Tseren, a fierce struggle for power broke out in the Dzungar Khanate. The Qing Empire, taking advantage of the favorable moment of the split of the enemy state, sent in huge troops, which by 1758 destroyed not only the state itself, but also almost its entire population.

Mongolia under the Qing Empire

Main article: Mongolia under the Qing Empire

As part of the Qing Empire, the territory of Mongolia was a separate imperial viceroyalty, divided into four khanates ( aimag) and the border Kobdo district, located in the far west adjacent to Xinjiang. Aimaks disintegrated into khoshuns- feudal appanages traditional for Mongolia, which had relatively clear boundaries. However, under the Manchu emperors khoshuns from hereditary possessions turned into temporary grants, because in order to enter into hereditary ownership and management it was necessary for the Mongol princes to receive investiture from the emperor, who was considered the supreme owner of all Mongol lands. In order to weaken the influence of the princes, the Qing authorities split aimaks for everything new khoshuns, bringing their number from eight in 1691 to 111 by the 19th century.

All lay males between the ages of 18 and 60 were considered militia soldiers ( cyrics), and at the first request of the Manchu authorities, each administrative unit had to field and maintain, at the rate of one warrior from ten families, armed horsemen in full equipment. The main functions of the Mongol militia were guard duty on the borders with Russia and participation in the operations of the Manchu army in China, often as a police force. The diversion of a significant part of the productive population to military service, given its small number, placed a heavy burden on the country's economy.

In 1644, on the basis of the Mongol Administration (Menggu Yamen), the Chamber of Foreign Relations (Lifanyuan) was created, which was in charge of the “external” peoples: Mongols, Tibetans, Russians, Turks. She was the next level of control of Mongolia after the emperor. Only Manchus and Mongols could serve in the House; the Chinese were not allowed there.

Subordinate to the Chamber were the imperial governors - the assistant jianjun (governor general), who commanded all the Mongolian troops, had a residence in the fortified city of Ulyasutai and was in charge of the affairs (since 1786) of the two western aimaks- Dzasaktukhansky and Sainnoyonkhansky, as well as his two assistants (ambani), who controlled the two eastern aimags- Tushetukhansky and Tsetsenkhansky, with a residence in Urga (since 1761). The Ikh-khure monastery was located there - the residence of the high priest of Mongolia Bogdo Gegen. Urga gradually turned into the actual capital. The Hebei Ambanis (since 1762) ruled the border district from the city of Kobdo. The Manchus brought with them to Mongolia detailed regulation of all social life and exercised strict control over its observance.

In the first half of the 18th century, the situation of Mongolia's cattle breeders began to be negatively impacted by the Chinese trade and usurious capital that was introduced into the country's economy. At settled settlements (mainly monasteries), the number of trading settlements with shops, stores, warehouses and living quarters grew. They became centers of wholesale and retail trade. The significant difference between the low purchasing prices for Mongolian goods and the high selling prices for Chinese goods created the opportunity for Chinese traders to quickly get rich. By the middle of the 19th century, branches of several dozen Chinese trading and moneylending firms, mainly from Beijing and Shanxi, were openly operating in Mongolia with the direct support of the Manchu authorities. Russian trade was limited to the holding of a fair in Kyakhta every three years and the activities of Russian merchants along the Kyakhta-Urga-Kalgan highway (with the payment of large duties).

Struggle for independence

Occurred in 1911, led by the highest Khalkha nobility with the support of the Russian Empire, it overthrew the two-century dependence of Khalkha on the Qing Empire. As a result of the revolution, an independent state (khanate) was founded, headed by the theocratic monarch Bogd Gegen, in fact a protectorate of the Russian Empire.

Mongolian People's Republic

Notes

Literature

• Kradin N. N., Skrynnikova T. D. Empire of Genghis Khan. M.: Eastern literature, 2006. ISBN 5-02-018521-3
• Kradin N. N. Preliminary results of studying urbanization dynamics on the territory of Mongolia in antiquity and the Middle Ages // History and Mathematics: Macrohistorical dynamics of society and state / Ed. Malkov S. Yu., Grinin L. E., Korotaev A. V. M.: KomKniga/URSS, 2007. P. 40-48.

see also

additional literature

• Lev Gumilyov “Secret” and “explicit” history of the Mongols of the 12th-13th centuries.
• Lev Gumilev Ancient Rus' and the Great Steppe. Heterogeneity and heterodoxy.
• Lev Gumilev Ancient Rus' and the Great Steppe. Yasa and the fight against her.

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