Kal- This is the result of the metabolism of the food bolus as it passes through the gastrointestinal tract. In fact, this is a waste material from which all unnecessary substances are squeezed out as much as possible. Moreover, the composition includes, among other things, toxins and slags.

Conventionally, feces can be divided into two main parts:

1. Water. It makes up ¾ of the total volume of feces. Its main purpose is to dissolve toxic substances and soften the solid residue to facilitate the passage of chyme through the intestines.
2. dry residue. It makes up a quarter of everything released during the act of defecation. This is the most concentrated part of the waste. Conventionally, it can also be divided into 3 approximately equal parts:
   • Undigested plant fibers. Acting with food, they transit through the entire intestinal tract, performing functions. Fiber is the best known of all plant fibers. It is necessary in the daily diet, as it acts as an activator of motility and a nutrient medium for beneficial microflora. The more plant foods a person consumes, the more abundant the feces.
   • bacteria. In fact, feces are a graveyard of useful microflora with an expired shelf life. The more fiber, the more microflora will be in the feces, as the intensity of the work of bacteria increases, the processes of their division and reproduction intensify. Therefore, there are more of them.
   • Components of metabolism. This part makes up all those slags and toxins that are collected throughout the body and excreted in environment by re-excretion into the intestinal lumen. There they dissolve in water and mix with the rest of the solid residue. This part also includes other undigested components: muscle fibers, soaps, fats. With normal digestion, they should be as small as possible. With enzyme deficiency, their number increases, which can be observed in the results.

Other "parameters" of feces

First of all, external indicators are evaluated: color, consistency, smell, volume, fractionation. For a more in-depth study, a coprological study is carried out, which evaluates the microscopic and biochemical composition of the dry residue.

Color

The first indicator that catches your eye is the color of the stool. He can be:

• Brown yellow. Normal color of feces. It is formed as a result of the secretion of bile. Bile, in turn, is a product of the breakdown and processing of erythrocytes - red blood cells. Toxic bilirubin, which is released during their destruction, is neutralized in the liver with the formation of strecobelin, which is excreted in the bile.
• White. Discolored feces are a sign of liver dysfunction. Such a picture can be seen either with hepatitis of various etiologies at the stage of cirrhosis, when hepatocytes are destroyed and stop processing bilirubin, or against the background of obstruction of the bile ducts by spasm (with biliary dyskinesia), a stone (with cholelithiasis) or a volumetric formation (hemangiomas, oncological pathology, echinococcosis).
• Yellow. Most often occurs with dysbiosis while taking antibacterial or other drugs that destroy.
• Scarlet or burgundy. The color of the blood indicates hemorrhagic impregnation of feces that pass in the area of ​​bleeding in the distal digestive tract (distal small intestine, colon and rectum).
• Black. Tar-like stools are a sign of bleeding in the upper gastrointestinal tract (oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, duodenum). The erythrocytes released into the lumen of the tract are alkalized with hydrochloric acid, and the iron included in their composition acquires a dark brown color, which in large quantities looks like tar.
• Green. A sign of a purulent infectious process in the intestinal lumen, or

Kal or chair, or excreta, or feces(lat. faces) - the contents of the lower sections of the colon, excreted from the body during defecation. Feces are the end product of digestion resulting from complex biochemical processes in the gastrointestinal tract. It is believed that feces are formed from chyme in the large intestine.

The daily amount of feces in healthy people can vary markedly. Plant food increases the amount of feces, animal - reduces. With a mixed diet, the daily amount of feces usually does not exceed 190-200 g.

The original feces of newborns is called meconium. Black tarry feces with a fetid odor - melena.

The medical scale of the forms of human feces, including 7 gradations of the type of feces, from hardened dark lumps to watery slurry, is called "".

Characteristics of the feces of a healthy person

Normal stool has a dense consistency and a cylindrical shape. A large amount of plant foods in the diet makes the feces thick and mushy. A liquid-mushy or watery consistency of feces can be with a large intake of water.

The color of feces on a normal mixed diet is dark brown, on a meat diet it is black-brown, on a vegetarian diet it is light brown, and on a milk diet it is light brown or light yellow. Taking bismuth and bismuth-containing drugs (De-Nol, Ventrisol, Novobismol, Pilocid, Vikanol life, Bismuth tripotassium dicitrate, Vitridinol, Ulcavis, Escape, Tribimol, Gastro-norm, Pepto-Bismol) make feces black. Iron gives feces a black color with a greenish tinge. Sorrel and spinach give the feces a greenish tint, pork - reddish. Blueberries and black currants stain the feces black or black-brown.

Feces usually have a mild, unpleasant odor, which is due to the presence in it of indole, skatole, phenol, creazoles and other substances formed as a result of bacterial breakdown of proteins.

Feces normally should not contain mucus, blood, pus, food debris.

Microorganisms in the feces of a healthy person

Qualitative and quantitative composition of the main microflora of the large intestine in a healthy person in colony-forming units (CFU) in terms of 1 g of feces (according to OST 91500.11.0004-2003 "Protocol of patient management. Intestinal dysbacteriosis"):

Types of microorganisms	Age, years
	less than 1	1–60	over 60
Bifidobacteria ( Bifidobacterium)	10 10 –10 11	10 9 –10 10	10 8 –10 9
Lactobacillus ( Lactobacillus)	10 6 –10 7	10 7 –10 8	10 6 –10 7
Bacteroids ( Bacteroides)	10 7 –10 8	10 9 –10 10	10 10 –10 11
Enterococci ( Enterococcus)	10 5 –10 7	10 5 –10 8	10 6 – 10 7
Fusobacteria ( Fusobacterium)	<10 6	10 8 –10 9	10 8 –10 9
Eubacteria ( Eubacterium)	10 6 –10 7	10 9 –10 10	10 9 –10 10
Peptostreptococcus ( Peptostreptococcus)	<10 5	10 9 –10 10	10 10
Clostridia ( Clostridium)	⩽10 3	⩽10 5	⩽10 6
Escherichia coli ( Escherichia coli) typical	10 7 –10 8	10 7 –10 8	10 7 –10 8
Escherichia coli lactose-negative	<10 5	<10 5	<10 5
Escherichia coli hemolytic	0	0	0
Other opportunistic bacteria: Klebsiella ( Klebsiella), Enterobacter ( Enterobacter), hafnium ( hafnia), serratia ( Serratia), proteus ( Proteus), morganella ( Morganella), providences ( Providencia), citrobacter ( Citrobacter) and others	<10 4	<10 4	<10 4
Staphylococcus aureus ( Staphylococcus aureus)	0	0	0
Staphylococcus saprophytic ( Staphylococcus saprophyticus) and epidermal ( Staphylococcus epidermidis)	⩽10 4	⩽10 4	⩽10 4
Mushrooms of the genus Candida	⩽10 3	⩽10 4	⩽10 4
Non-fermenting bacteria: Pseudomonas ( Pseudomonas), Acinetobacter ( Acinetobacter) and others	⩽10 3	⩽10 4	⩽10 4

Fungi are found in the feces of approximately 65-70% of healthy people. candida albicans(Burova S.A.)

acidity of feces

The acidity of the feces of a healthy person eating a mixed diet is determined by the vital activity of the microflora of the large intestine and is equal to 6.8–7.6 pH. The acidity of feces is considered normal in the range from 6.0 to 8.0 pH. The acidity of meconium is about 6 pH. Deviations from the norm in the acidity of feces:

• sharply acidic (pH less than 5.5) occurs with fermentative dyspepsia
• acidic (pH 5.5 to 6.7) may be due to malabsorption of fatty acids in the small intestine
• alkaline (pH from 8.0 to 8.5) may be due to putrefaction of food proteins that are not digested in the stomach and small intestine and inflammatory exudate as a result of the activation of putrefactive microflora and the formation of ammonia and other alkaline components in the large intestine
• sharply alkaline (pH over 8.5) occurs with putrefactive dyspepsia (colitis)

About constipation, diarrhea, fecal incontinence

Read more about constipation in the American Gastroenterological Association's Guidelines for Constipation. The crux of the problem." Part I and Part II, “Constipation. World Organization of Gastroenterology Practice Guide”, “Nutrition for children with constipation”, “Non-pharmacological measures for constipation”, “10 tips from the American College of Gastroenterology for constipation and fecal incontinence”, and the article “Constipation”.

About Fecal Incontinence: "Fecal Incontinence" from the US Department of Health and Human Services.

Feces in children with various diseases

In the first day or two of life, healthy newborns excrete meconium - feces, which is a thick, viscous mass of dark olive color, odorless, accumulated in the intestines before the birth of the child, before the first application to the breast. The absence of epithelial cells in the composition of meconium may be a sign of intestinal obstruction in the newborn. The admixture of meconium to the amniotic fluid at the beginning of labor indicates intrauterine asphyxia. Feces in children of the first year of life on natural feeding are mushy, golden yellow in color with a slightly acidic odor. The number of bowel movements - up to 7 times a day in the first half of the year, and 2-3 times a day - in the second. With artificial feeding, the feces are thicker, putty-like consistency, light yellow in color, with an unpleasant odor, the number of bowel movements is 3-4 times a day for up to six months and 1-2 times a day for up to a year. In older children, the feces are shaped (a type of sausage), dark brown in color, do not contain pathological impurities (mucus, blood). Defecation occurs 1-2 times a day. With various diseases, the nature of the stool changes, there are:

• dyspeptic stool, liquid with an admixture of mucus, greenery, white lumps, frothy, sour smell, occurs with simple dyspepsia - "fermentative dyspepsia"
• "Hungry" stool, meager, reminiscent of dyspeptic, but thicker, darker, happens with malnutrition
• stool with toxic dyspepsia is watery, light yellow in color with an admixture of mucus
• with colienteritis, the feces are liquid, ocher-yellow, less often greenish, with an admixture of mucus and white lumps
• with salmonellosis, the feces are liquid, the color of marsh greens, a small amount of mucus, there is no blood
• with dysentery, the stool is quickened (up to 15 times), contains a large amount of mucus, pus and streaks of blood, there are almost no feces, defecation is accompanied by tenesmus
• with typhoid fever, the stool is quickened (up to 10 times), liquid, fetid, in the form of pea puree, occasionally contains an admixture of bile
• with cholera, stools are almost continuous (up to 100 times a day), plentiful, in the form of rice water, never contain blood
• with food poisoning, the stool is liquid, frequent, profuse, greenish-yellow in color with an admixture of mucus, rarely streaked with blood
• with amoebiasis, the stool is quickened, the color of raspberry jelly
• with giardiasis, stools 3-4 times a day, yellow-green in color, soft consistency
• with viral hepatitis, the stool is acholic, gray-clay color, without pathological impurities
• malabsorption syndromes are characterized by polyfecal matter, when the amount of feces exceeds 2% of the food eaten and the liquid drunk. This syndrome is observed with disaccharide deficiency (lactose and sucrose), celiac disease (intolerance to gluten, gliadin), intolerance to cow's milk protein, with

excretory processes, these are the processes of excretion of products formed in the process of metabolism. In a living organism, chemical processes are constantly taking place, during which substances necessary for the body and substances harmful to the body are formed. The excretion of metabolic products from the blood by the excretory organs from the body into the external environment is a necessary condition for the existence of the organism.

Normally, the excretion of metabolic products is proportional to the intensity of their formation. Together with the products formed as a result of metabolism, foreign substances (for example, medicinal) and their processed products are removed from the body. Sometimes nutrients are also removed from the blood if the rate of entry of these substances (for example, sugar) into the blood significantly exceeds the rate of their absorption by tissues. The excretory processes include the removal from the digestive tract of products that are not absorbed into the blood, taken with food, the components of digestive juices, microorganisms that inhabit the food tract, and desquamated cells of its epithelium. Through the intestines, some cations (calcium), heavy metals (iron) and some foreign substances are released into the external environment.

Carbon dioxide is released into the environment in gaseous form. Its excretion always occurs along with the consumption of oxygen and is carried out through the outer integument and through the respiratory organs. Through the lungs, 98-99% of all carbon dioxide formed is excreted. The excretion of nitrogen-containing (and other intermediate) metabolic products, as well as foreign substances and the regulation of the osmotic pressure of the blood, is carried out by the activity of the kidneys. A certain amount of products of nitrogen metabolism, water and salts are excreted through the sweat glands and digestive juices through the intestinal wall, but this amount is small and does not protect the body from self-poisoning by these products in case of impaired renal function.

Excretory processes ensure the maintenance of the constancy of the internal environment of the body. Pathological disorders of excretory processes appear with violations of the regulation of respiration, kidney function, and intestines. At the same time, it should be noted that a violation of the excretory processes can also appear in various other diseases and injuries of the body, since they disrupt the organized interaction of the entire body system. Any violations, including local ones, the body is forced to compensate by increasing the functional activity of other areas and organs, that is, by overloading, which is not always able to compensate for the disadvantage created by the violation.

Kal(feces, faeces, excrement) – the contents of the distal large intestine, released during defecation. In a healthy person, stool is a mixture consisting of about 1/3 of the remains of food taken, 1/3 of the remains of the digestive organs and 1/3 of microbes, 95% of which are dead.

The amount of feces depends on the quantity and quality of food taken. With mixed nutrition quantitatively corresponding to the needs of the body, the weight of feces excreted per day is 100-200 g. The weight of feces largely depends on the water content in it, therefore, with constipation, when water absorption is increased, the weight of daily feces decreases, and with diarrhea it increases. A significant increase in feces is observed in diseases accompanied by the assimilation of food (gastric achylia, lesions of the pancreas, etc.). A special abundance of feces occurs with lesions of the pancreas, in which its weight can reach 1 kg. The shape of the feces depends on the consistency, the content of water, mucus and fat in them. Normal feces contain about 70-75% water, have a sausage-like shape and a homogeneous dense composition. Dense, even hard feces, observed with constipation, lose their normal shape and usually consist of separate lumps from a long stay in the large intestine. With spastic colitis, "sheep feces" are often observed, which are small round lumps of a dense consistency. This dense stool contains about 60% water. A change in the shape of feces (ribbon-like, pencil-shaped) may depend both on organic stenoses and on spastic narrowing of the sphincters. Unformed mushy and especially liquid feces is a pathological phenomenon, it contains 90-92% water. The stools can also be heterogeneous, dense lumps can float in liquid or mucus, which happens with inflammatory processes in the large intestine. The consistency of feces depends on a number of reasons, the main of which is the time they spend in the large intestine. Acceleration of peristalsis leads to insufficient absorption of water, slowdown - to excessive absorption. More liquid than normal, the consistency of feces acquires with abundant secretion of inflammatory exudate and mucus by the intestinal wall, while taking saline laxatives. Feces, containing a lot of fat, have a greasy consistency. The color of feces in a healthy person may vary somewhat depending on the food taken. Most often there are various shades of brown - dairy food gives a light brown, even yellow color, meat - dark brown. Vegetable products give the stool its color, beets - red, blueberries, black currants, coffee, cocoa - dark brown to black. Some medicinal substances taken orally also have a significant effect on the color of feces (for example, bismuth is black, iron preparations are greenish-black, etc.). d.). The color of feces also changes during pathological processes in the digestive organs, there are many of these options, for example, we will give a few. If bile does not enter the intestine, the stool becomes grayish-white, clay or sandy in color. Fatty stools may be gray in color. The presence of blood in the stool gives the stool a different color depending on the site of bleeding, if in the stomach, it is dark brown, almost black. The lower the bleeding site is located along the intestine, the less dark color and more red. The smell of feces depends on the presence in it of decay products of food residues, mainly protein ones, therefore, with an abundance of proteins in food, the smell intensifies. With the predominance of putrefactive processes in the intestines (putrefactive dyspepsia, decay of tumors), the stool acquires a fetid odor, and during fermentation processes it becomes sour. With poor chewing of food, and more with poor digestion, feces may contain undigested food residues in the form of whitish or grayish lumps. With a significant content of fat in the feces, the surface of the feces acquires a peculiar slightly matte sheen, and the consistency is greasy. Mucus in normal feces is present in a minimal amount in the form of a thin, shiny coating covering the surface of the feces. In inflammatory processes, it can appear in the feces in the form of whitish or yellow lumps on the surface of the feces or between its fragments.

defecation- the natural act of removing stool from the intestine to the outside. The liquid content of the small intestine passes into the large intestine, where it lingers for 10-12 hours, and sometimes more. Passing through the large intestine, this content gradually thickens, due to the vigorous absorption of water and turns into feces. The composition of feces is not constant, it depends on the nature of the diet. In the intervals between bowel movements, the feces move in the direction of the exit and accumulate in the lower part of the sigmoid colon, the sphincter prevents their further progress. The accumulation of stool in the sigmoid colon can only give a feeling of heaviness or pressure in the left side. A conscious feeling of "the urge to go down" in a person occurs when feces enter and fill the rectal cavity with it. By relaxing the sphincters during defecation, the work of the muscles of the intestinal wall and the protrusion of the anus pushes the feces out. The movement of feces from the sigmoid colon into the rectum, and from the latter outwards, is facilitated by contraction of the diaphragm and abdominal muscles during delayed breathing, which explains the attempts and groaning during defecation.

The act of defecation occurs with the participation of the central nervous system, the center of defecation is desalted in humans at the level of III–IV lumbar segments, and the highest center of defecation is in the brain. With the participation of the central nervous system, a person can influence the act of defecation, arbitrarily carrying it out or delaying it. From an early age, a conditioned reflex to time is developed in a child, and defecation occurs daily at certain hours. An adult can also develop a reflex for the time of defecation, subject to a constant daily routine and nutrition, if the conditions of activity allow it. Under the influence of strong stimuli, such as pain, fear, trauma, and others, involuntary defecation can sometimes occur. In diseases, constipation may occur, and in dysentery, due to persistent irritation, spasms may occur, which underlie some forms of false diarrhea.

Urine (urine), is a excretory product of animals and humans, produced by the kidneys and excreted from the body to the outside through the urinary tract system. It consists of water (96%) and the salts contained in it, end products of metabolism (urea, uric acid, etc.) and foreign substances.

Almost all of the end products of nitrogen metabolism (with the exception of small amounts that are excreted with sweat and feces), more than half of the excreted water, the predominant part of inorganic salts and part of the metabolic products of carbohydrates and lipids are removed from the body with urine. In addition, soluble substances that accidentally enter the body are also removed with urine. The state of urine gives an idea of ​​the work of the kidneys, metabolic processes and contributes to the nature of the state of the body in its analysis. Deviations in its composition often give an idea of ​​violations in the state of health and with self-control.

The daily amount of urine normally ranges from 800 to 1800 ml. An increased amount of urine (polyuria) is observed with diabetes insipidus, diabetes mellitus, with certain diseases of the nervous system, resorption of edema, etc. The amount of urine is reduced (oliguria) with severe sweating, acute nephritis, uremia, stones or tumors of the kidneys, with an increase in edema, in many cardiovascular diseases, as well as in some states of CNS excitation. The excretion of urine stops (anuria) in case of certain poisonings, with blockage of the ureters or urethra, for example, with urolithiasis, prostate adenoma, etc.

The color of normal human urine can be various shades of yellow - from pale yellowish to rich reddish yellow. The most common color of urine is amber yellow. The color of normal urine depends on the content of various pigments in it.

The intensity of urine color depends on the concentration of these pigments, but can also be caused by pathology. Prolonged excretion of pale, even almost colorless urine is observed in diabetes and diabetes insipidus, with a wrinkled kidney, amyloid kidney, etc .; intensely colored urine is excreted in febrile and other diseases. In the case of passing into the urine, in some diseases, blood pigments, the urine turns into various shades of red, and sometimes becomes almost black. Urine containing bile pigments is colored saffron-yellow, brown, greenish-brown, almost green. Milky white urine comes from the admixture of a large amount of pus. The color of urine may change after taking certain medications, plant pigments can pass into it, changing color. With some pathological changes, it can also acquire other colors, sometimes it is already cloudy from the bladder, and sometimes it darkens when standing in the air.

The smell of urine can change with some diseases, but the smell can also be affected by various substances introduced into the body. The smell of urine characteristic of substances appears from valerian, garlic, onions; from turpentine - violet, asparagus - putrefactive and other aromatic odors of substances. The presence of acetone in the urine gives it a fruity smell.

The composition of human urine is very complex, it contains a large amount of acids, minerals and other substances. Under various pathological conditions, the content of some constituents increases in the urine, and many other constituents appear. Among the decay products excreted from the body with urine, there are also substances that act on the body more or less toxic. With pathological processes in the body, the content of such substances in the urine can increase, and sometimes new substances that are not normally found appear. The accumulation of toxic substances in the body causes various phenomena of autointoxication.

Urine contains uric acid and urea. In humans, uric acid is the end product of purine metabolism and usually does not exceed 2 g per day. A very significant amount of uric acid salts is released in diseases associated with increased decay of cells and tissues, such as leukemia. Violations of the excretion of uric acid is observed with gout, with inflammatory processes in the kidneys. Urea is excreted in the urine as the end product of nitrogen metabolism and amounts to 20-35 g per day; during starvation and various pathological processes, its percentage in the urine decreases. An increase in urea excretion is observed in febrile conditions, as well as with increased breakdown of protein substances in the body. Urea can be used as a diuretic in the absence of nephritis.

Urination (urination), this is a periodically advancing reflex act of emptying the bladder. In a healthy person, the first urge to urinate may occur when 100-150 ml of urine accumulates in the bladder and becomes sharp when 350-400 ml of urine accumulates. These numbers may be different for each person. By an effort of will, a person can suppress the sensation of an urge or cause it if necessary, but it is better to give a natural course to reflex acts if possible, or develop a regimen. Urination disorders can occur as a result of functional diseases of the central nervous system (urinary incontinence), with diseases of the bladder, urethra and prostate gland. Since reflexes are not limited to the bladder, urethra and its sphincters, they can cause some secondary pathological symptoms in diseases associated with urination.

Sweat and perspiration .

Sweat, it is a colorless, poor in solid constituents, salty-tasting liquid secreted by the sweat glands. Contains 98-99% water, mineral salts, urea, uric acid and other metabolic products. The excretion of water and mineral salts from the body together with sweat affects water and salt metabolism. Sweat can have a very unpleasant odor (foot sweat), due mainly to the presence of volatile fatty acids, which are easily formed during the bacterial breakdown of sweat. During muscular work and, in particular, during sports, sweat contains a significant amount of lactic acid and an increased amount of nitrogenous substances.

sweating is one of the means of thermoregulation, evaporating from the surface of the body, sweat increases heat transfer and helps maintain a constant body temperature. The sweat reflex is an integral part of the body's holistic response to thermal or any other effect. Sweat secretion for its successful flow requires the normal functioning of the nervous system, the normal condition of the skin, blood vessels and a number of endocrine glands. In everyday life, one speaks of sweating when sweat is noticed on the skin, the amount of sweat in such cases depends not only on the strength of its secretion, but also on the rate of evaporation. When the evaporation of sweat on any part of the body is limited, for example, due to shoes or a headdress, then this area may be wet even with moderate and undisturbed sweating. If environmental conditions favor the rapid evaporation of perspiration, such as in dry and hot conditions with wind blowing, then the skin may remain dry with normal perspiration.

Sweating disorders can appear in various diseases, sometimes congenital. They are diverse, the composition of the secreted sweat may change, in rare cases even the color, sweat is sometimes oily from the admixture of the secretion of the sebaceous glands. Sometimes the secreted sweat is bloody (the appearance of red blood cells in the sweat), sometimes it is blackish or even black, blue. In uremia and anuria cholera, the amount of urea in sweat can increase so much that it is deposited on the skin in the form of crystals. Mercury, arsenic, iron, iodine, bromine, some acids, methylene blue and other substances, when introduced into the body, can also appear in sweat. Much more often, sweating changes quantitatively, along with its loss, it may decrease or increase, as well as local disorders. A general increase in sweating appears with thyrotoxicosis, various infections, intoxications, local - more often with various lesions of the nervous system. Sweating disorders are often found in skin lesions, in places of burns, wound scars, and many skin diseases (eczema, etc.).

Treatment of sweating is directed at the underlying disease. When it is disturbed, neurotics show sufficient sleep, good nutrition, warm baths, walks, and sea bathing. Normal mode and activity will not harm healthy people.

Since ancient times, the method of diaphoretic treatment has been used for a variety of diseases. Increased sweating entails an increase in the general basal metabolism and additionally removes a liquid containing salt and urea from the body. Its effectiveness is enhanced by limiting water consumption during its use. It can be achieved in a variety of ways - through the influence of pharmacological substances, physical agents, etc. Most often, diaphoretic treatment is used in the form of water and thermal procedures. These are hot general and local baths, dry air and general light baths, electric light baths, sand baths, dry wraps, sunbathing, etc. These products, when used independently, must be chosen taking into account your well-being and remembering that excesses and improper use are always harmful.

The most valuable is increased sweating when various toxic substances are retained in the body, with obesity, in kidney patients, bronchiectasis, to remove fluid from the body. It can be used for chronic intoxication, neuralgia, gout. In infectious diseases, it is almost never used, since it has little effect on the course of the disease, causing a purely symptomatic antipyretic effect, and in a number of infections (influenza, pneumonia, diphtheria) it requires special care, since it can give additional complications. Diaphoretic treatment (especially intensive) requires caution due to the strong effect on the cardiovascular system.

Contraindications for diaphoretic treatment are cardiac and vascular weakness, severe and persistent hypertension, acute nephritis and obvious uremic conditions.

Slime, translucent, sticky, viscous mass. Being formed and located on the surfaces of the mucous membranes, mucus prevents their damage, gives them a smooth, slippery and shiny appearance. It acts as a lubricant in the body and helps to reduce friction and promotes the movement of solids through the mucous membranes. In the presence of excess consumption of fatty and oily products that form mucus, abnormal secretions containing mucus may appear. In chronic debilitating diseases, mucous degeneration is observed in the connective tissue.

Tears, this is the secret of the lacrimal glands, which is a transparent liquid that washes and moisturizes the surface of the eyeball. It has a slightly alkaline reaction and, due to the sodium chloride contained in tears, has a bitterly salty taste. A person produces 0.5-1 ml of tears during the day under normal conditions.

The fluid in the conjunctival sac forms a transparent film on the surface of the cornea, which saves the eye from pollution and improves the optical properties of the eye. It protects the eye from damage by small foreign bodies and bacteria, delaying them.

The bactericidal substance of the tear, lysozyme, quickly and completely dissolves many airborne bacteria. Tears have the property of delaying the growth of pyogenic cocci.

Tearing increases when foreign bodies get into the eyes, during difficult experiences, etc. Increased tearing occurs reflexively due to irritation of the eye, its surrounding parts or nose, as well as under the influence of mental moments (sadness, joy). Lacrimation can occur with diseases of the eye, increased lacrimal function of the lacrimal glands, or various obstacles in the ways that drain tears.

Saliva is a secret of the salivary glands, released into the oral cavity and involved in digestion. Saliva wets food, contributing to the formation of a food lump, dissolves some of the food substances, helping to recognize the taste of food. Once soaked in saliva, food becomes slippery, easier to swallow, and moves down the esophagus. Saliva contains digestive enzymes, mainly amylase (the old name is ptyalin), which breaks down glycogen and starch.

Saliva keeps the oral mucosa moist. Saliva plays a protective role in relation to the teeth and oral mucosa, washing them, it contributes to their mechanical and chemical cleaning from bacterial and chemical influences. The composition of saliva in the oral cavity includes the secret of not only salivary glands, but also other glands - parotid, tongue, etc., therefore it is called mixed saliva.

Mixed saliva contains vitamins, enzymes of various origins. A change in the composition of saliva can create causes that contribute to the development of caries, periodontal disease, and cause the deposition of tartar.

Smell, sensation arising from exposure to odorous substances. Odors can affect the respiratory, circulatory, digestive, sexual activities and affect mood and feelings. Smells are important in nutrition, good-smelling food causes appetite and is easier to digest, unpleasant-smelling food or eating it in a room whose smell is unpleasant, on the contrary, has a negative effect, sometimes causing nausea or vomiting. In sexual life, the smell can have an exciting or inhibitory effect, and sometimes repulsive. Perfume can have the same effect, pleasant for some, repulsive for others, and excessive and with a strong smell can cause allergic nausea. Smell perception is a positive or negative reaction of the nervous system to ethereal (smelling) stimuli released into the air. Every living organism has its own smell, as various chemical and metabolic processes take place inside it.

Secretion(from lat. - separation), this is the formation and secretion of special products by glandular cells - the secrets necessary for the life of the body. secretion is also characteristic of some neurons (neurosecretory), which produce neurohormones, and ordinary nerve cells, which secrete specific substances - mediators. Since the methods of implementation and regulation of secretion, incretion and excretion are essentially the same, the concept of secretion can be used in an expanded sense to isolate any products from glandular cells, regardless of the purpose of the latter. After all, every living cell in the process of life produces and releases some products of its metabolism. The transition of specific compounds produced by the glands and entering the blood is called internal secretion (incretion), and their transition to various body cavities or to its surface is external secretion, and these compounds are called secrets.

Excretion(separate, isolate), this is the allocation and removal from the body of unused metabolic products, as well as foreign and harmful compounds to the body. The excretory organs are the lungs, skin, kidneys, stomach, intestines, sweat mammary and other glands. In the process of splitting proteins, fats and carbohydrates, along with CO2 and nitrogenous compounds, water is formed (in humans, about 300 ml per day). In this water and water of food, many of the metabolic products, foreign substances and salts that are to be removed from the body are dissolved. Excretion and excretion of water is carried out by the same organs. Excretion is also carried out in the form of desquamation of the epidermis, loss of hair and milk teeth, erasure of bones, death of epithelial cells on the mucous membranes and glands, etc. Thus, excretion is the removal by the body of unnecessary and unused substances.

Excretions from the body are preceded by complex processes of digestion and metabolism, violations in the organization of which entail violations of excretory processes. Sometimes deviations in the processes of digestion and metabolism are indicated by violations of the excretory processes, often these deviations are noticeable during digestion. To maintain a normal state of health, it is necessary to constantly monitor all excretion processes and look for the cause, especially if the deviations are often repeated. This contributes to the prevention of the development of diseases, if the causes are identified in a timely manner and measures are taken to eliminate adverse disorders. The body's defenses are directly related to nutrition, we get sick, undernourished and overeating, short-term fasting enhances metabolic processes and mobilizes the body's defense reactions - phagocytosis. The energy necessary for the capture and absorption of phagocytosed particles is released due to the intensification of glycolysis processes.

Phagocytosis- active capture and absorption of living cells and non-living particles by unicellular organisms or special cells - phagocytes. Phagocytosis is one of the protective reactions of the body, mainly during inflammation, since the internal environment of phagocytes is unfavorable for the life and development of many non-pathogenic and pathogenic microbes. Phagocytes are some types of white blood cells and other cells. The phenomenon of phagocytosis was discovered by I. I. Mechnikov, who also revealed its general biological and immunological significance.

The activity of phagocytes fluctuates depending on the time of year, reaching the highest value in May-June and sharply decreasing in the winter months (November-February), which may affect susceptibility to bacterial infections. The activity of phagocytes changes under various physiological or pathological conditions of the body. When fasting for up to 36 hours, the activity of phagocytes can triple. The intake of corticosteroids significantly reduces the activity of cells, the system is strongly suppressed in avitaminosis A, and its restoration to normal occurs after 15 days of a normal diet. Vitamin A is also used to strengthen the immune system.

Bacteria do not lag behind in the organization of the suppression of the body's defenses, producing special substances to increase their virulence - aggressions. Aggressions(from Latin I attack) - the waste products of pathogenic microbes that have the ability to increase their virulence. Aggressins, suppressing phagocytosis and weakening the protective reactions of the body, ensure the penetration of pathogenic microbes into the body, their spread and reproduction, contributing to the development of the infectious process. By their chemical nature, aggressins are proteins, polysaccharides.

Some digestive and metabolic problems affecting excretory processes.

Thirst. Thirst regulates the flow of water into the body. In physiology, the state of the body, accompanied by a feeling of dryness in the mouth and throat and prompting the consumption of water, is called thirst. It occurs when there is a discrepancy in the time of occurrence of the body's need for water and its replenishment. Under ordinary, normal conditions, we call the need to replenish the body with water, a simple desire to drink water. Therefore, having met the word thirst in specialized literature, one can understand it as simply a desire to drink, or as a strongly expressed desire - thirst, depending on one's understanding or the conditions that are mentioned in the text.

Water is contained in the human body (about 65%) and is constantly needed for various metabolic processes, thermoregulation, maintaining the normal state of the mucous membranes, liquid consistency and living cells containing liquid, so the body needs its constant replenishment. We do not call the ordinary desire to drink thirst, but we speak of thirst, with a strong desire to drink, or a constant and insatiable desire for water. In many cases, the use of the word "thirst" and "desire to drink" are interchangeable.

For the normal functioning of the body, a dynamic balance of water balance is necessary, that is, a correspondence between the amount of water released from the body and the amount of water entering the body. Thirst (the desire to drink) is an indicator of a lack of water in the body, and its quenching by replenishing the body's need for water.

Along with the usual manifestations of thirst (desire to drink) with a lack of water in the body, the need for water can turn into thirst, have a pathological form and occur in some pathological conditions. A pronounced or constant desire to drink (thirst) occurs when being in the heat, prolonged non-use of water, when eating excess salt, sweets, food in general, and caused by other reasons.

Heartburn - a peculiar sensation of heat and burning along the esophagus, mainly in its lower section. Most often, heartburn occurs with increased acidity of the stomach (75%), but it can also occur with low acidity, and in healthy people it can occur when certain foods are consumed. It is one of the most common symptoms of peptic ulcer and occurs with cholecystitis, hernia, and pregnancy. Persistent and prolonged heartburn, not caused by inflammation of the mucosa, not amenable to treatment, can occur with increased irritability of the stomach with neurovegetative dystonia.

Heartburn, as a rule, is relieved by taking alkalis - bicarbonate of soda, burnt magnesia and others, as well as alkaline-containing products that neutralize acid. Favorable results can be achieved by eating smaller portions and avoiding foods that cause heartburn from the diet.

Belching- involuntary release of gases from the stomach or esophagus through the mouth, sometimes with food impurities. During normal activity of the stomach, there is a certain accumulation of gases in it, but with normal emptying of the stomach, the fermentation that occurs in it does not cause belching. In healthy people, infrequent, occasional belching can occur when the stomach is full, drinking sparkling water or beer, swallowing too much air during a hasty meal, eating dry food, and other causes caused by improper food intake.

Belching without smell and taste occurs when air is swallowed and increased formation of gases in the stomach, with stagnation and decomposition of gastric contents with an unpleasant odor. Sour belching occurs with increased acidity and due to the presence of fermentation acids in the stomach, bitter when bile enters, putrid - with prolonged stagnation and putrefactive irritation in the stomach. Belching can be a symptom of various diseases of the stomach, cardiovascular system, etc. and depends on the treatment of these diseases.

In all cases, it is necessary to abandon drinks containing carbonic acid and products that linger in the stomach for a long time. A positive effect is given by eating small portions and an alkalizing diet.

Flatulence(bloating, bloating) - excessive accumulation of gases in the digestive tract; common symptom of various diseases.

Under physiological conditions, the digestive tract always contains a small amount of air and gases. A healthy person in the intestines with a mixed diet has an average of about 900 cm3 of gases. With the abundant use of puffy foods (black bread, legumes, vegetables and potatoes), this amount can increase by 5-10 times, especially when eating soybeans. There are many reasons for flatulence, pathological flatulence causes subjective symptoms and functional disorders.

Symptoms of flatulence depend on the disease, the main symptoms are belching, hiccups, heaviness, tightness and expansion in the abdomen, sometimes noisy flatus, especially painful for patients. Bad breath acquires the character of an obsessive neurosis in young neuropathic subjects. The chair may remain normal or there is an alternation of fermentative diarrhea with spastic constipation. In more serious forms, there are attacks of cramping pains that disappear after passing gases, shortness of breath, palpitations, spasmodic urination, symptoms of general intoxication (headaches, anemia, etc.). Flatulence may be an early symptom of a circulatory disorder or liver cirrhosis. The most severe forms of flatulence are associated with peritonitis, intestinal obstruction and acute paralysis of the stomach.

Nutrition is built taking into account the underlying disease. The main requirements are restriction of calories, carbohydrates, fiber, sour and carbonated drinks. Fresh bread, legumes, cabbage, kvass are prohibited. Potatoes, sweets, flour dishes are significantly limited. Bouillons, soups from pureed vegetables, meat, fish, cottage cheese, sour cream, yogurt are allowed. It is better to use greens and fruits than flour and potato dishes, “crispy” and stale rye bread is added for better peristalsis. What matters is eating regularly, chewing thoroughly and caring for your teeth. Useful carminative infusions of chamomile, dill, mint, yarrow - 5-10 g per glass of water, taken in several doses a day.

Nausea manifested in a painful sensation of pressure in the epigastric region. The feeling of nausea may be accompanied by external pallor, dizziness, general weakness, sweating, cold extremities, lowering blood pressure, and sometimes a state of semi-fainting. Nausea often precedes vomiting.

Causes of nausea can be disturbances in the activity of the brain and central nervous system, poisoning with toxic substances, reflex - with irritation, metabolic disorders and movement.

Quite common causes are neurosis and psychosis, accompanied by inhibition of the functional ability of the gastrointestinal tract. Among the causes of nausea can be: feelings of anxiety, a feeling of fear, doom, at the sight of unpleasant objects causing a feeling of disgust, with general increased excitability (mainly in women), with fatigue, excitement, excessive eye strain. Nausea can be caused by increased intracranial pressure associated with brain disease and migraine.

Nausea from toxic substances comes from poisons circulating in the blood and affecting the brain or the lining of the stomach and intestines, or both. Toxic substances can enter the body by inhalation (carbon monoxide), by ingestion, by injection (morphine, etc.), and also be formed in the body during diabetes, uremia, extensive burns, and pregnancy.

Reflex nausea can appear with any irritation of the root of the tongue, pharynx, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, pleura, diseases of the abdominal organs. Nausea may occur in the presence of constipation, disappearing after emptying. It occurs when the stomach is irritated caused by the use of alcohol, individually intolerable or poor-quality food, poisons. It can occur in acute inflammatory diseases of the abdominal and pelvic organs, hepatic and renal colic.

Metabolic nausea appears in severe forms of vitamin deficiency, especially B vitamins, with reduced thyroid function, Addison's disease.

Nausea can appear when driving in a train, car, plane, river and sea vessels, while it may be accompanied by apathy, lack of appetite, increased sweating, headache and vomiting. It can be enhanced by visual and olfactory perceptions.

Nausea that occurs on an empty stomach may stop after drinking hot tea or coffee without milk. After overeating, lemon juice, black coffee, carbonated water, artificially induced vomiting, and in case of food poisoning, a warm solution of laxative salt (1 teaspoon per glass of water) can help. To reduce irritation of the gastric mucosa, pieces of ice are taken.

Vomit- involuntary ejection of the contents of the stomach through the esophagus, pharynx, mouth, and sometimes through the nasal passages. Most often, vomiting occurs with various diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, as well as other causes of nausea, in most cases it is preceded by nausea of ​​varying duration. It can also be a manifestation of a protective reflex, for example, when taking poor-quality food. Vomiting can also be a symptom of various diseases, so it is necessary to treat the disease that causes it. At the end of vomiting, clean your mouth and rinse it with water.

diarrhea(diarrhea) - rapid release of liquid feces. The cause of diarrhea can be infectious diseases of the digestive organs or as a reaction of the digestive organs to diseases of other organs and systems. Their cause may be contamination and spoilage of food during the hot season, overload of the digestive organs with excess nutrition, coarse vegetable fiber, refractory fats, and organic acids. They are promoted by fast food, poor chewing of food, liver disease. Abuse of spicy spices, snacks and alcoholic beverages is a common cause of diarrhea in chronic gastroenterocolitis. Many foods, even in small quantities, can cause allergic diarrhea (fresh milk, strawberries, etc.).

Individual prevention of diarrhea is possible with the help of oral hygiene, proper healthy diet, timely treatment of all types of dyspepsia (digestive disorders - fermentation and putrefactive processes) and acute intestinal infections.

constipation- prolonged retention of feces in the intestines or insufficient systematic action. Constipation is a relative concept, it should be evaluated in comparison with a past life, if the frequency of bowel movements has decreased and this is not caused by a change in food or lifestyle, then these may be symptoms of constipation. There are many reasons for constipation, one of them is the composition of food. They can be with poor food, monotonous and predominantly meat and floury nutrition, violation of the diet. The more nitrogenous and easily digestible substances in the food, the less frequent bowel movements. Constipation can easily appear with a mechanically sparing diet (broths, crackers, semolina or rice porridge, etc.). Constipation is promoted by food containing little plant residues - meat, cottage cheese, eggs, as well as insufficient water intake, increased loss through other channels, and the use of "hard" water containing a lot of lime. In humans, the very act of defecation is subject to the psyche, so psycho-nervous constipation occupies an important place.

Constipation may appear in the first days of traveling by rail, as a result of the suppression of the normal reflex of the urge to go down. These are persistent constipation in mental workers, with mental depression, nervous overwork (it has a greater effect than a sedentary lifestyle). Even fixing your attention on the dangers of constipation (for example, from autointoxication), you can increase constipation by increasing the tone of the nervous system.

Obesity- excessive deposition of adipose tissue in the subcutaneous tissue and other tissues of the body, associated with metabolic disorders. It is one of the most common metabolic diseases, it can be an independent disease and a symptom of diseases of the central nervous system and the endocrine system. Violation of the mechanisms of fat metabolism can occur with excessive and erratic nutrition, injuries, infections, intoxication, endocrine disorders. A certain role in obesity can be played by heredity and the constitution, it occurs in women twice as often as in men. In obesity, the intake of energy material predominates over consumption, while the lack of movement has only an auxiliary value, accelerating the process of obesity.

In adults, obesity in most cases develops in the process of overeating, it is important to follow a diet that excludes habitual overeating, frequent consumption of favorite foods, night meals and snacks, and other bad eating habits. Obesity must be combated by limiting the intake of carbohydrates and fats, increasing physical activity, and for endocrine disorders, treatment is necessary.

The seriousness of obesity should not be underestimated. The progression of obesity reduces performance, contributes to premature aging and can lead to disability.

poisoning ( intoxication) - a violation of the state of health when harmful (toxic) substances enter the body. Poisoning can be exogenous (external origin) and endogenous (caused by internal causes). From the type of poisons affecting the body, poisonings differ in terms: toxicosis, toxemia and toxic conditions.

The most common symptoms of bacterial food poisoning.

Acute gastroenteritis develops 4-12 hours after ingestion of food infected (usually with salmonella) (goulash, pate, jelly) and is accompanied by nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, leading to severe dehydration. Acute gastroenteritis, or enterocolitis, develops 2-3 hours later (sometimes the next day) after ingestion of infected (usually staphylococcal) food (usually dairy products or products containing them: cakes, custards, etc.). It is accompanied by nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea (it may be absent).

Used gastric lavage, taking activated charcoal and laxative salt, drinking plenty of water, heating pad on the stomach, the introduction of glucose.

Out of ignorance, you can get poisoned by poisonous mushrooms. Mushroom poisoning that occurs 1-3 hours after eating mushrooms is less dangerous than poisoning, the symptoms of which are detected after a latent period of 6 to 24 hours. The most frequent pain in the abdomen, vomiting, diarrhea, more or less severe dehydration. Such poisoning can appear after eating unboiled lines or when using them with a decoction. In case of fly agaric poisoning - vomiting, diarrhea with sharp pains in the abdomen, salivation, sharp constriction of the pupils, a significant slowdown in the pulse. Difficulty breathing, general weakness, danger of pulmonary edema. Symptoms of a particularly dangerous poisoning with pale toadstool occur later than others and are expressed in addition to vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain and collapse, in the development of hepatic coma.

Poisoning with snake venom. A snake bite has the appearance of two points, places into which poisonous teeth have stuck; between these points there are two parallel rows of smaller points going backwards - bite marks of non-venomous teeth. The bite of non-venomous snakes has four longitudinal rows of small points (without larger ones). Bite marks may be subtle, especially if applied through clothing, and must be viewed through a magnifying glass to distinguish the pattern. The venoms of different snakes cause different symptoms of action.

Viper bites (bites of a horned viper, viper and sand efa are especially dangerous) cause severe and prolonged pain, pronounced and spreading edema, pronounced hemorrhages in and outside the bite area, hemolysis and hematuria. In addition to these symptoms, vomiting, drowsiness, fainting (rarely agitation and even convulsions), hypothermia and hypotension appear. Deaths can occur after the first half of the day.

A cobra sting causes less prolonged but burning pain, less swelling, and subcutaneous hemorrhages are usually absent. There is a disorder of speech and swallowing, motor paralysis, respiratory paralysis is possible. Death can occur within the first six hours.

The most effective treatment is the introduction of special antitoxic sera. In the absence of serum, the absorption of poison should be limited or delayed, removed or neutralized. A tourniquet is applied to the bitten limb, the poison is sucked out of the wound by mouth (if the oral mucosa is not damaged), it is advisable to make an incision at the site of the bite before suction. It is recommended to cauterize the bite site with hot metal or chemical agents. Drinking large amounts of alcohol is not recommended, as death can occur from alcohol abuse. Alcohol has an anesthetic property and relieves the symptoms by intoxicating the mind, it has no other effect and does not contribute to the treatment.

Bee venom. Following the sting, burning, pain, redness, swelling quickly occur. A local reaction may increase during the first two days and last up to 10 days. Stinging of the face and lips is especially severe, and stinging of the mouth and throat can lead to a rapidly developing and life-threatening edema of the glottis. Depending on the number of stings, dizziness, headache, nausea and vomiting, widespread erythema or urticaria, loss of consciousness, convulsions may occur.

For treatment, it is recommended to remove the sting to prevent emptying or crushing under the skin of the poisonous gland attached to the sting. Alcohol or vodka lotions, ice on the bite site. With significantly pronounced symptoms from the action of the poison, a recumbent position and rest are recommended. In case of allergic phenomena, or in order to prevent them - diphenhydramine or other desensitizing agents. Alcoholic drinks, by suppressing sensitivity, can reduce pain and other painful sensations, but they are dangerous if they are abused. When stung by wasps and bumblebees, the treatment is the same.

Intoxication- damage to the body by poisons introduced from the outside (exogenous intoxication), or formed in the body itself (endogenous intoxication).

Poisoning and intoxication can be, like diseases, acute, chronic and moderate. The division of poisoning and intoxication is very arbitrary, although poisoning is sometimes understood as damage to the body by mineral, pharmacological and poisons synthesized in the chemical industry.

Exogenous, these are all types of household (for example, carbon monoxide, poisonous plants, etc.), industrial, bacterial, medical and combat intoxications.

Endogenous intoxications can be caused by metabolic disorders, the activity of the endocrine glands and excretory functions, and infectious diseases. Often in internal intoxication lies damage from an external factor, from repeated intake of small doses of poisons (alcohol, etc.). An excited central nervous system (CNS) worsens the condition during intoxication, as it requires an increased expenditure of energy used by the body to neutralize the effects of poisoning.

Symptoms of intoxication are varied, common to all is a violation of the functions of the central nervous system, this is fatigue, decreased performance, headaches, sleep disturbance, nausea, in severe cases, vomiting, convulsions, blackout of consciousness.

Autointoxication - self-poisoning with toxic substances that are produced by the body, mainly substances that are products of metabolism or tissue decay. Under normal conditions, they are excreted from the body with feces, urine, sweat, through the lungs with air or with various secrets, or are neutralized in metabolic processes.

toxins- toxic substances, metabolic products of a number of microbes of animals and plants, causing a toxic effect in the body. These are compounds (often of a protein nature) capable of causing disease or death of a person when they enter the body. They are contained in the poisons of snakes, spiders, scorpions. Toxicity is the ability (severity of possible harmful effects) of chemicals to have a harmful effect on the human body, animals and plants, determined by the amount and strength of exposure.

The most correct action in case of poisoning is to remove the poison from the body, taking antidotes and antidotes. This can be sucking snake venom from the bite site with your mouth to reduce its entry into the blood, inducing vomiting, taking laxatives, diuretics, if the condition allows. When seeking medical help, it is good to know or at least assume what caused the poisoning, this contributes to a faster neutralization of the poison.

Poisons, substances of plant, animal and mineral origin or products of chemical synthesis, capable of causing acute or chronic poisoning and death when exposed to a living organism. Any poisons, depending on the concentration, cause various functional disorders in the body.

One type of toxic substance that we often encounter is carbon monoxide. One of the possibilities for deterioration of well-being is in cities with heavy traffic, polluting the air with car exhaust gases. The exhaust gases of internal combustion vehicles include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and other substances. In the exhaust gases of cars with diesel engines, aldehydes and nitrogen oxides are also found. The degree of toxicity of exhaust gases depends on the type of fuel, the mode of operation of the engine, the season of the year and other conditions. The toxicity of exhaust gases depends mainly on carbon monoxide.

Carbon monoxide (carbon monoxide; CO), the simplest compound of carbon and oxygen, is a colorless, odorless, poisonous gas. May cause acute, chronic and fatal poisoning. Carbon monoxide poisoning can occur in a variety of settings - in a residential area, in a car, in a garage, at work, in the open air, etc. Chronic poisoning can develop in people who are long-term in an atmosphere saturated with carbon monoxide in relatively small concentrations. Deterioration of well-being is manifested by headaches, dizziness, increased drowsiness during work and poor sleep at night, general lethargy. Difficulty in intellectual activity, depressed mood, anxiety, hallucinations, sweating, and other disturbances may also be noted.

To defeat enemy manpower during combat operations, highly toxic (poisonous) compounds are used, called poisonous substances (S). Other toxic substances that have a slower effect on the body can be used for self-poisoning; read about such poisons that are popular and loved by many people in the addiction section.

Carbon dioxide- a synonym for carbon dioxide, an incorrect, often occurring name - carbon dioxide. Normal air contains 0.03-0.04% carbon dioxide, it can accumulate in high concentrations in mines, caves, basements, especially if fermentation products are stored in them: wine, beer, kvass, etc.

A person exhales 900-1300 g of carbon dioxide per day. In high concentrations (25-30%) and above, mixed with oxygen, it causes anesthesia with complete extinction of consciousness, sensitivity and reflexes, however, there is a danger of complete and irreversible paralysis of the respiratory center. The maximum tolerated concentration of carbon dioxide is 9 mg/l.

Symptoms of the toxic effects of carbon dioxide are; headache, dizziness, restlessness, tinnitus, agitation, trembling (usually observed at a concentration of carbon dioxide in the air - 10 percent by volume). Further intoxication is accompanied by the appearance of drowsiness, cyanosis (blue), slow breathing, weakened cardiac activity, and cold extremities. Death occurs as a result of paralysis of the respiratory center and immediate cardiac arrest. The rapid onset of death is observed at 40 volume percent of carbon dioxide in the air.

Locally, carbon dioxide initially causes irritation, accompanied by hyperemia, a feeling of warmth and tingling, then local anesthesia occurs. At high concentrations of carbon dioxide, anesthesia develops rapidly. When it acts on the mucous membranes of the gastrointestinal tract, hyperemia develops, absorption increases, motility increases, reflexes occur, but its resorptive effect is not observed. Carbon dioxide, as a lipoid-tropic substance, penetrates through intact integuments and irritates sensitive nerve endings. These properties are used when prescribing CO2-containing mineral waters and carbonic acid baths. Carbon dioxide is used in medicine for medicinal purposes, it is also used in the food industry.

Human life is unthinkable without food. Good nutrition is necessary for the normal functioning of the body. But as a result, the consumed food, our body turns into feces. How much product with a specific smell does a person produce per day for the period from the moment of birth to the last breath. The mass of feces is an individual parameter, and among representatives of different nations it varies widely depending on the characteristics of nutrition. It is more in people who eat mainly plant foods, and less in lovers of meat dishes. Let us give as an example some data reflecting the results of special studies. The daily fecal mass of residents of the United States and Great Britain is on average 100-200 g, and often less than 100 g. For people living in rural areas of Uganda, the average fecal mass per day is about 470 g, and for the adult population of India - 311 g, in In Russia and Ukraine, the population sends 250-300 g to the bathrooms. It should be noted that 1/3 of the mass of feces is bacteria, some of which remain alive, and the other part is dead unicellular.

It is not difficult to calculate the mass of feces of one of our fellow countrymen, which the sewerage should take in a year, or in 70 years of the work of his healthy stomach. Let's make simple calculations: 300 grams x 365 days (1 year) = 109.5 kg, i.e. In a year, the mass of feces produced by one person is 109.5 kg. We multiply this number by 70 years of life and we get 7665 kg already.

Now the question for those who are not united by centralized sewerage, and who solves the problems of sewage disposal on their own, is a question for private homeowners. What to do with the daily arriving undigested organics that left our flesh when we sat down on the toilet? The answer is ready, in a cesspool, a septic tank, a local treatment plant (VOC). But the faeces gradually clog the bottom of the cesspool, the water stops draining, the pit overflows, the septic tank overflows, and cannot cope with the VOC overload. Radical measures are needed - unique bacteria are needed that are born to consume feces for food and instead give liquid to nature. Such bacteria are the sweat of TM "Vodogray", which produce enzymes, break down fecal organic matter, bringing it to the required substances, and then feed on them. The biological product "Vodogray" is introduced into the local sewage system once a month. Questions often arise why it is necessary to constantly replenish the sewer with bacteria, because the bacteria, having settled in the sewer drains, can multiply themselves? But remember the above. Feces consist of 1/3 bacteria, some of which are alive. Many bacteria daily from our body with feces enter the sewer and, of course, fight for life in the limited space of a cesspool or septic tank. Life is a struggle and the strongest wins. So you have to monthly introduce into the sewer, as to the front, reserves from a box with a biological product, and the Vodogray bacteria plunge into their usual monotonous work - they process feces, fat, fiber, food waste into a liquid that can drain into the ground. At the same time, an unpleasant fetid odor is removed, which was exuded by bacteria contained in feces and other organic products that fell into the sewer.

Knowing the technology of feces disposal, now you can enjoy food.

The volume of feces is the very first indicator, for the evaluation of which neither special equipment nor qualified laboratories are required, which makes it possible to independently detect some problems of the gastrointestinal tract.

The normal amount of feces is 60-250 grams per day, while you should pay attention to changes in the daily diet.

However, single episodes of non-compliance with the norm are not at all an indicator of all kinds of gastroenterological problems. Changes in the amount of feces should be observed in dynamics, focusing on 3-4 episodes per week. If you find these symptoms, for starters, you should pay attention to the diet and food preferences. So, if a person prefers easily digestible protein foods, which include eggs, meat and legumes, then the amount of feces will be much smaller. Fiber-rich, plant foods, on the contrary, will lead to an increase in the volume of feces and episodes of defecation. The listed changes in the amount of feces are physiological and manifest themselves to a greater or lesser extent in each person. However, do not forget that it is necessary to tell the doctor about your preferences in order to avoid erroneous diagnoses.

Why does the amount of feces change?

A completely different situation develops when changes in the amount of feces occur quite often, approximately 3-4 days in a row during the last week. In this case, it is necessary to examine the gastrointestinal tract to confirm or exclude various diseases, such as constipation or diarrhea, as well as to treat these symptom complexes.

Constipation, like polyfecal matter, is acute and chronic, so it is important to indicate how long the person has experienced these symptoms. If changes in the amount of feces are observed during the last week, and previously such symptoms did not bother, then we can talk about an acute condition, but if over the past 3 months there has been an unstable nature of the volume of feces, then most likely the condition has acquired a chronic course that needs to be modified nutrition and lifestyle.

It is important to pay attention to such phenomena as the alternation of constipation and diarrhea, because this can be a symptom of severe intestinal pathologies, from dysbacteriosis to nonspecific ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease.