Euro-Atlantic civilization. Welfare society: concept, common features. Euro-Atlantic Civilization

Literature

Plan

Lecture 5

5.1. Formation of a socially oriented market economy (Sweden, Germany, USA).

5.1.1. Basic principles and functions of a socially oriented economy.

5.1.2. Swedish model of market economy.

5.1.3. German or continental model of market economy.

5.1.4. Program to create a "welfare society" in the United States.

5.2. Neoconservatism as an ideological movement. Neoconservatism in politics.

5.3. The ideology of modern European social democracy.

5.4. Mass movements in political life: feminist, pacifist, anti-war, environmental.

Target:

analysis of the "welfare society" ("general welfare"), which took shape in the 1960s-1970s. in the Euro-Atlantic countries, the definition of its common features and characteristics, the process of formation and the essence of a socially oriented market economy on the example of Sweden, West Germany, the USA and the methods of implementing social policy

Tasks:

Definition of concepts: Atlanticism, welfare state, welfare state, monetarism, Marshall plan, multisectoral economy, conversion, Swedish model, continental market economy model

To find out the state of the economy of the Western countries after the Second World War, the tasks, methods and examples of the manifestation of an active social policy

Know the basic models for solving social problems

Be able to identify the causes of the crisis of the "welfare state"

Form general cultural competencies

1. Volkov A. Society of countless benefits // Expert. - 2006. - No. 3.

2. World history of modern times: Proc. allowance: At 2 pm - Part 2. 1945-beginning of the XXI century. / I. O. Zmitrovich, G. M. Krivoshchekiy, M. Ya. Kolotsey and others / Ed. ed. L. A. Kolotsey. - Grodno: GrGU, 2002.

3. World history. / Ed. G. B. Polyak, A. N. Markova. – Ed. 3rd revision and add. - M., 2009.

4. The main stages of the formation of civil society in the countries Western Europe and Russia in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. / Rev. ed. S. P. Pozharskaya. - M.: IVI RAN, 2007.

Internet resource:

ü http://www.humanities.edu.ru

ü http://www.xserver.ru/user/espvm/index.shtml

ü http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany

ü http://kraspubl.ru/content/view.

atlanticism(related to the terms Water, Sea, thalassocracy, Sea Power) a complex geopolitical concept; combines: the historically western sector of human civilization, the strategic union of Western countries dominated by liberal democratic ideology, the military-strategic NATO member countries, the social orientation towards the “trade system” and “market values” (US model). The opposite of Eurasianism.

"Welfare State" a term for the essence of the state in the USA and Europe in the 30s - 70s. XX century, starting with Roosevelt's "New Deal" (after the name of whose adviser - J. Keynes - is often referred to as "Keynesian"). Being a form of crisis resolution (“Great Depression”), the welfare state was oriented towards social partnership and the main task was the effective performance of social protection functions (“welfare state”). Therefore, the state was charged with the obligation to stabilize finances; stimulation of "big science"; control over progressive taxation, social security, education, medical care, services. The resulting taxes were redistributed to solve social problems. According to one of the researchers, the welfare state is based on the nationalization and planning of economic sectors, a system of social measures (social services, insurance, state regulation of wages, labor, money circulation, etc.), “antitrust (antimonopoly) legislation”, increasing the role of broad popular masses in political life.

welfare state- (from the English The Welfare State-welfare state) - or "welfare state" (welfare state) - a concept that denotes a set of social institutions in Western countries, designed to provide all members of society with social rights through the redistribution of income. The welfare state is a kind of theoretical and practical model of a social order in which a wide range of programs of social assistance to the underprivileged segments of the population is carried out. The welfare state model is implemented in social policy not only by social democratic leaders, but also by conservatives. An example is the concept of "great society", proclaimed by the American President L. Johnson; "formed society", proposed by German Chancellor L. Erhard - the leader of the Christian Democratic Party.

European Union- an integration association of 15 Western European countries, including the ECSC, Euratom, the EEC, functioning under the conditions of the Single European Market proclaimed on January 1, 1993 and actually representing a single international governmental organization.

Monetarism- (monetarism) - 1) macroeconomic theory, according to which the amount of money in circulation is a determining factor in the development of the economy; which sees control over the printing of money as the key to running the economy. The founder of monetarism is the American economist Milton Friedman. Monetarists emphasize the need for a match between the money supply (including credit) and the economy's ability to produce goods and services if inflation is to be curbed. Like the old fashionable but debatable theory in economics (Keynesian), monetarism was widely used in the 1960s. Western governments. It provides the rationale for managing the economy through the regulation of the money supply, including interest rates, and serves to limit government spending and thus public debt created by loans. The adoption of monetarism was the result of the apparent failure of Keynesian political economy to prevent high inflation and high unemployment, declining international competitiveness, and pressure from the oil monopolies. All this was considered a consequence of the congestion of the state and the growth of public spending; 2) the policy of state control over monetary and credit resources, which are the determining factor in the formation of the country's economy and are interconnected with the value of gross income.

neoconservative revolution- modernization of the economy in Western European countries and the United States, which was based on private entrepreneurship and its support, refusal to subsidize unprofitable industries, selling them to private companies on preferential terms, privatizing a significant part of municipal housing, saving budget expenses, tax incentives for manufacturers, etc. .

Economic integration- the process of rapprochement and merging of several national economies into a regional economic system, which is ensured by the further concentration and interweaving of capitals, the pursuance by the integrating states of a coordinated foreign and domestic policy.

Multi-sector economy - an economic system in which private, state and public ownership of enterprises and other means of production coexist on a market basis.

ASSESSMENT OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE DISCIPLINE "HISTORY"

Objects of assessment

OUTCOME INDICATORS	ASSESSMENT TOOLS
Skills
navigate the current economic, political and cultural situation in Russia and in the world;
identify the relationship of domestic, regional, world socio-economic, political, cultural problems.	control work independent work
Knowledge
the main directions of development of key regions of the world at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries;	control work independent work
the essence and causes of local, regional, interstate conflicts at the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century;	control work independent work
the main processes (integration, multicultural, migration and others) of the economic and political development of the leading states and regions of the world;	control work independent work
the appointment of the UN, NATO, EU and other organizations and the main directions of their activities;	control work independent work
about the role of science, culture and religion in the preservation and strengthening of national and state traditions;	test
content and purpose of the most important legal and legislative acts of world and regional significance	independent work
Intermediate certification by discipline	Final differentiated standings

Control and evaluation tools

Topic 1. Acceleration of scientific and technological development and its consequences.

Independent work No. 1

Fill in the table: "Acceleration of scientific and technological development and its consequences."

Performance control test on topic No. 1 "Acceleration of scientific and technological development and its consequences."

In tasks No. 1 - 2, it is necessary to decipher the abbreviation:

1. TNK - ____________________________.

2. TNB - _____________________________.

In tasks No. 3 - 5, it is necessary to define the concepts:

3. TNB is……

4. TNCs are…..

5. ASEAN is……

In tasks No. 6 - 13, select one correct answer

6. Choose one correct answer: the development of TNCs shows:

A) about globalization B) about separatism IN) about deurbanization D) no answer is correct

7. Choose one correct answer: the development of TNCs contributes to:

A) nt progress B) deconcentration of the economy IN) globalization G) all answers are correct

8. Choose one correct answer: the development of TNCs and TNB leads to:

A) to the deurbanization of Asian and African countries B) to infrastructure development in Asia and Africa

IN) to the independence of underdeveloped countries G) all of the above is correct

9. Indicate what does NOT apply to the reasons for the acceleration of scientific and technological progress in the 2nd half of the twentieth century:

A) population explosion B) activities of lone scientists

IN) G) arms race

10. Indicate what does NOT apply to the scientific and technological achievements of the 2nd half of the twentieth century:

A) radio B) a space flight IN) TV G) Internet

11. Indicate what does NOT apply to the main features of the information society:

A) growing importance of education and creativity B) decentralization of production and labor force

IN) reduced mobility of the population G) growing equality of opportunity

12. Indicate what does NOT apply to the results of the activities of transnational corporations:

A) globalization of economic relations B) aggravation of competition in the scientific and technical sphere

IN) strengthening the influence of the state on the national economy G) increase in the uneven economic development of individual countries

13. Indicate what is NOT a fundamental element of the environment of modern man:

A) office B) traffic jam IN) supermarket G) peasant yard

In tasks No. 14-15, a detailed answer is required

14. Explain what are the positive consequences of transnationalization of the economy.

15. Explain what are the negative consequences of transnationalization of the economy

Topic 2 Social processes in the information society.

Practice #1

Working with textual material: “Employees: employees and the middle class. New marginal layers. Marginalization, zones of social decline, new outcasts, separatism. Renaissance of social behavior; the middle class - the main features, the "revolution of managers"; meritocracy."

"New Marginal Layers"

Changing the way and living conditions of the majority of the population of developed countries at the post-industrial stage of social development is not a boon for all its strata. In any society, there is always a group of social outsiders who, for various reasons, found themselves on the sidelines of social development, standing outside the system of social ties and relations. These are marginal people, people deprived of property, socially significant status, who do not have the skills or ability to work. with an increase in the general level of well-being, the development of social policy, the state and society take them on their own, providing them with tolerable living conditions. Since the 1970s, however, the problem of marginalization has taken on a new dimension.

Causes and forms of marginalization. The new marginalism is qualitatively different from the old, traditional one. In its modern understanding, the very concept of "marginal" does not necessarily imply deprivation. Any person capable of productive work, but unable to realize this ability, who finds himself outside social ties and relations, becomes a marginal.

First of all, many people of retirement age face the problem of marginalization. Being, as a rule, quite wealthy people, with an increase in average life expectancy, thanks to improved medical care, they retain the ability to work. However, society restricts or excludes opportunities for them to work. And with its termination, a significant part of social ties is torn, people fall out of their usual environment, the rhythm of work, that is, they become marginalized. For them, the problem of a new socialization in the changed conditions of life arises.

Another part of the new outcasts are the victims of structural changes in the economy, the disappearance of entire industries and professions, whose work began to be performed by robots, automatons. Not everyone can always re-adapt to the new economic reality. In terms of living standards, they are protected by a system of benefits, payments, and social benefits. However, material well-being does not replace lost social ties. Society has long been the main material support of people belonging to this group. The issue of raising their social status and role in public life has never been seriously considered by anyone.

The third group of outcasts are young people just entering the working life, for whom unemployment becomes almost a profession for several reasons. First of all, because of the gap between the needs of production and the level and direction of training. Universities began to turn into factories for the production of the unemployed, especially since entrepreneurs prefer to hire people with certain experience and skills.

A frequent factor in the marginalization of people of working age are physical and mental disabilities associated, for example, with the deterioration of the environment, information loads. The proportion of people with disabilities in the total population of developed countries varied by the end of the century, from 22.7% in Austria to 2.3% in Japan.

Marginals, especially young people, are in modern conditions the main source of threat to the social stability of developed countries. The marginal mass is extremely acutely aware of the need to be "someone". She is very susceptible to any propaganda that promises to improve her social position or points to the "culprits" of its deterioration. Its consciousness and behavior are easy to manipulate, which is used by radical, extremist forces in various countries. It is indicative that in a number of developed countries the factor of disruption of public order is not traditional social conflicts, strikes (they usually take place in the form established by law), but acts of violence, vandalism, street riots, caused, at first glance, by random circumstances, not accompanied by putting forward clear social or political demands.

Obviously, in the developed countries in the 21st century the problem of social and professional adaptation of the marginalized into the system of public relations and relations will remain relevant.

Zones of social decline . A specific form of marginalization in the information age has become regional, affecting the interests and material well-being of residents of certain areas.

Within most states, territories with different economic structures are distinguished, corresponding to their way of life: post-industrial, industrial, high-tech agrarian, pre-capitalist structures (subsistence, plantation economy), as well as those in a state of economic decline. The level of development of the state as a whole is determined by which of the ways is predominant. At the same time, when in some regions of the same state, ways of life are very different, this entails far-reaching consequences.

Where industries that become unpromising are concentrated, enterprises are closed, there are zones of economic and, accordingly, social decline. The situation in these regions is characterized by higher than national rates of unemployment, a decline in business activity, and the outflow of highly skilled labor to more prosperous areas. This leads to a decrease in the standard of living in the region, a decrease in tax revenues to the budgets of local authorities. Opportunities for solving social problems and providing support to the poor are shrinking, and the quality of education and healthcare is declining.

The growth of internal diversity, differences in the position, interests and way of life of individual regions often gives rise to (or strengthens) regional separatism, the manifestations of which many multinational states face. Its source is dissatisfaction with the policy of the center of power, which is accused either of insufficient attention to the development of decline zones, or, on the contrary, of unfair exploitation of the resources of prosperous regions.

The problem of regional separatism is especially acute where the majority of the population is made up of ethnic minorities. In the 1970s and 1980s, the problem of the French-speaking province of Quebec in English-speaking Canada escalated. Demands for autonomy intensified in Great Britain, up to and including separation from the United Kingdom, with its rich oil reserves on the coastal shelf. At the same time, demands for autonomy increased in Wales, where the coal mining industry fell into decay. In Spain, most of the provinces demanded autonomy, the most restless - the Basque Country - sought independence. In France, similar demands were put forward by nationalists in Corsica, who found themselves on the sidelines of industrial development. Contradictions between the agrarian South and the industrial North intensified in Italy. In Belgium, the two main ethnic groups, the Walloons and the Flemings, frankly expressed their unwillingness to live in one state.

Solving the problems of marginalization of certain regions is facilitated by special development programs adopted at the state level. Within the framework of the European Union, there are corresponding pan-European programs of assistance to regions recognized as zones of social disaster.”

QUESTIONS:

1. Explain the term "marginal strata of society."

2. What is the reason for the emergence of "new outcasts" in the post-industrial society? What population groups do they belong to?

3. Are there problems of marginalized layers in our society? Give an example.

4. How is the problem of “social distress zones” related to marginalization? Why do they appear in developed countries?

5. Name the zones of marginalization in the CIS countries and the Perm region. Specify the possible reasons for the occurrence.

Independent work No. 2

A) Feminist movement B) Anti-globalization movement

C) The emergence of the "green" society D) The revival of the Ku Klux Klan

In task No. 14, it is necessary to decipher the abbreviation:

14. Decipher the following abbreviations:

A) ECSC __________________________________________________________________________.

B) EEC ____________________________________________________________________________.

B) UN ________________________________________________________________________________.

D) WTO ____________________________________________________________________________.

E) EU_________________________________________________________________________________.

In task number 15, match Filling pattern: 1-B, 2-A, 3-D.

15. Correlate the integration formations and the countries that they include:

Topic 3. Ethnosocial problems in the modern world.

Practice #2

Independent work No. 3

Work with the text Declaration on race and racial prejudice. UN Charter, Universal Declaration of Human Rights.(Read, write out the main provisions of the documents)

INSTRUCTIONS

1. Using the media, Internet resources, studied material, prepare material about one of the interethnic conflicts according to the plan:

A) factors contributing to the development of interethnic conflict;

B) causes of interethnic conflict;

C) forms of manifestation;

D) the result of an interethnic conflict;

Practice #3

Welfare society: concept, common features. Socially oriented market economy

"Euro-Atlantic civilization of the "welfare society"

“The concept of “Atlanticism” was substantiated by the American geopolitician N. Speakman (1893-1943). According to his idea, the role of the Mediterranean Sea as an area of distribution of the ancient Roman-Hellenistic civilization passed to the Atlantic Ocean, on the western and eastern shores of which peoples live, connected by a unity of origin, culture, and common values. This, in his opinion, predetermined the rapprochement of the countries of the Atlantic space under the leadership of the United States, as the strongest and most dynamic of them. The foundations of Atlantic solidarity, laid down during the Second World War of 1939-1945, were strengthened after the adoption by the United States in 1947. "Marshall Plan", a program of assistance to the countries of Western Europe. The commonality of principles, values, interests in maintaining stability and prosperity of the countries of the North Atlantic zone of the world was recorded in 1949. In the agreement on the creation of a military-political union - the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The strategic interests of the ruling elites on both sides of the Atlantic coincided during the Cold War, which prompted them, despite the elements of economic rivalry and different understanding of priorities in opposing international communism, to coordinate their policies. The term "Atlanticism" entered the political lexicon after 1961, when US President George W. Kennedy launched the so-called Grand Project Atlantic community, which assumed the strengthening of the unity of countries North America and Western Europe. The United States supported integration trends in Western Europe, interacted with allies within the framework of international organizations - UN structures, the GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GATT), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the seven most developed countries of the world, whose regular meetings of heads of government began in 1975 G. Base element The Euro-Atlantic civilization was represented by the USA, Great Britain and its "white dominions" (Canada, Australia). The military-political cooperation of these countries with the continental states of Western Europe laid the foundation for a closer alliance. With the adoption by Germany and Italy after the war, and then by the Eastern European states, of the liberal-democratic principles of organizing political life, the framework of Euro-Atlanticism expanded even more.

"Welfare society": the main parameters

After the end of World War II, many European countries needed post-war economic recovery. The government of Western European countries took into account the experience of the revolutionary events in Russia in 1917, the establishment of totalitarian dictatorships in Italy and Germany. This experience clearly showed that underestimation of the importance of social stability, especially in times of crisis, leads to the collapse of the political system. It is no coincidence that such a function of the state as ensuring social security began to play an increasing role in developed countries, the process of formation of socially oriented market economy . The experience of the 20th century, especially its first half, clearly showed both governments and business circles the importance of the stability of the social support of any transformations. In the process of modernization, reconstruction, inevitably disturbing the balance in society. The main problem is related to the social cost of reforms and its fair distribution.

in Sweden in the 1930s. there was a model of economic democracy, assuming the absence of poverty. The main features of the Swedish model of socialism are considered to be a combination of a highly developed, highly efficient economy with a high level of consumption, employment, and the most advanced social security system in the world. The basis of this model is a mixed economy, a combination of a private entrepreneurial market system with socially oriented state mechanisms for the redistribution of production income.

The Swedish Experience was used in the reconstruction and modernization of the economy of West Germany after World War II. The reforms that led to the creation of a socially oriented market economy in Germany are associated with the activities of the Minister of Economics in the first government of the FRG, L. Erhard. The government proceeded from the fact that the hardships of restoration should be evenly distributed among all segments of the population, because overcoming the consequences of the war is a national task. During the financial reform of 1948, which stabilized the German mark, pensions and payments were exchanged at a ratio of 1:1, half of the deposits could be exchanged at a rate of 1:10. Given that the deposits belonged mainly to the wealthy, this measure increased the degree of social equality. Monetary obligations of banks were annulled, the obligations of enterprises were recalculated at the rate of 1:10. Having received cash at a time to pay salaries, then the enterprises had to exist by selling their products. In 1951 A law was passed that introduced the practice of social partnership: representatives of trade unions received up to 50% of the seats on the supervisory boards of companies in the leading industries of mining and metallurgy, then the so-called workers' shares appeared, providing employees of corporations with a share in profits.

The measures taken meant a partial expropriation of the property of the wealthy in order to restore the economy and create incentives for employees to increase labor productivity. This laid the foundation for the German "economic miracle" - the accelerated development of the 1950-1960s, which returned Germany to one of the leading places in the world economy.

in the USA in the 1960s. under President L. Jones, the concept of creating a "Great Society" in which there is no poverty was put forward.

Within the framework of a socially oriented market economy, the most important function of the authorities was to create guarantees of real equality of rights and opportunities for citizens through the redistribution of income and state support for the poor. At the beginning of the 20th century, the state spent more money on the army and police, redistributed through the budget, on average, from 10% to 15% of gross domestic product (GDP). Most of the expenses were directed to the development of the education system, medical care, social and pension security, and the creation of new jobs.

Of great importance for the solution of social problems was the expansion and strengthening of the legal basis for ensuring the interests of workers in the social sphere. Social rights have come to be seen as inalienable, component fundamental human rights, and their observance as a sign of the existence of a constitutional state. This is reflected in national constitutions and international legal documents. The state achieves the goals of its social policy by various means. The most obvious method is direct financing of the social sphere from the budgets of central and local authorities. Budget funds are used to create new jobs, to develop the state health care system, education, pensions, unemployment benefits, disability benefits, development programs for territories that have become social disaster zones, housing construction for the poor, etc.

The possibilities of financing the social sphere are limited by the budgets of central and local authorities. Their main source is direct and indirect taxes, the constant increase of which, even for good purposes, is impossible. Too high a level of taxation makes the expansion of production unprofitable, causes an outflow of capital abroad, which sooner or later undermines the competitiveness of the economy in world markets, stimulates economic difficulties that exacerbate social problems.

Methods of carrying out social policy are widespread. Thus, the taxation system is not only a source of resources for the implementation of social programs. It plays the role of a means of regulating the ratio of incomes of poor and rich citizens. In the 1990s in developed countries, the ratio between the incomes of the poorest 20% and the richest 20% of families ranged from 1:4.3 in Japan to 1%7.4 in the United States (in Russia, this proportion is 1:11.4 (16 times)). The system of progressive taxation, a larger tax on persons receiving large incomes, a tax on real estate, which is more for the rich, on inheritance did not exclude the possibility of receiving more pay for more complex, skilled work. At the same time, this system lowered the level of social dependence. Under conditions of market economy, the state does not directly interfere in the pricing process. However, there are indirect measures (such as US antitrust laws, fixed prices for state-owned enterprises, tax maneuvers on imported products, anti-inflationary policies, etc.) that allow price stability to be achieved at a relatively low level.

Legislative activity is an important lever of the social policy of the state. This is especially true for the area that is associated with the regulation of labor conflicts, the creation of conditions, the activation of social work of civil society structures. The state recognizes the right of workers to strike, to conclude collective agreements, and creates mechanisms for mediation in resolving labor disputes. This provides ordinary citizens with a system of legal protection that plays an important role in maintaining stability in society. If a person, faced with social injustice, can rely on the law, he has no need for violent actions. In the United States, relevant laws were adopted in 1395, in most European countries after the Second World War.

With the intensification of the social policy of the state, the scale of public activity in the field of helping the poor and the needy not only decreased, but even increased. In developed countries, a tripartite model of social protection has developed. It is supported by the policy of the state, important components are semi-state and private foundations cooperating with the state, charitable organizations, and business is an active participant.”

QUESTIONS:

1. Highlight the factors contributing to the creation of a Euro-Atlantic civilization.

2. Highlight the main features of a "welfare" society in an established civilization.

3. How do you explain that it was the United States that became the leader and center of the Euro-Atlantic civilization.

Independent work No. 4

Make a summary: “The crisis of the model of society in the 70s of the 20th century. neoconservative revolution. EU, "one-dimensional man", "new left", "red brigades", "red army", "hot autumn". Radicalism. Neoconservatism, liberalism.

Comparative Analysis: "Social Democracy and Neoliberalism". ( Define the concepts, when, where it appeared, compare the main ideas and views, who and when from the politicians of the second half of the 20th - 21st centuries implemented).

Prepare an abstract. Political portrait of one of the politicians of neoconservatism, neoliberalism. (Using the media, Internet resources, studied material, create a political portrait of one of the politicians of neoconservatism and neoliberalism).

Performance of control work on topic No. 4 "Euro-Atlantic civilization: from the "welfare society" to the neo-conservative revolution."

1. On what foundations was the “Euro-Atlantic civilization” formed?

2. What countries were originally part of this civilization?

3. Expand the meaning of the concept of "welfare society."

4. What is neoconservatism?

5. Name the statesmen who carried out the ideas of neoconservatism in the domestic politics of their countries. What were the main measures of this policy?

Topic 5. Ways of development of the countries of Eastern Europe and the USSR.

Independent work No. 5

INSTRUCTIONS

The work must contain information about the source (where the material was taken, the date of publication of the newspaper, magazine, the author of the article, the name of the site, the time frame of the situation being analyzed), the work should be formalized in the RR. No more than 10 slides. The material must be well-organized and clearly structured.

1) Using the media, Internet resources, studied material, prepare a material about one of the states of Eastern Europe. (domestic and foreign policy).

Performance control test on topic No. 5 "Ways of development of the countries of Eastern Europe and the USSR."

In tasks No. 1 - 15, select one correct answer

1. Indicate the country of Eastern Europe into which the Soviet Union entered its troops in 1956:
A) Bulgaria B) Czechoslovakia C) Hungary D) East Germany

2. The creation of the ATS happened:

A) in 1955 B) in 1956 IN) in 1957 G) in 1961

3. The creation of the Department of Internal Affairs took place when the head of the USSR was:

A) I.V. Stalin B) N.S. Khrushchev IN) L.I. Brezhnev G) M.S. Gorbachev

4. A joint military action of the Warsaw Pact countries in Czechoslovakia took place:

A) in 1966 B) in 1967 IN) in 1968 G) in 1985

5. Specify the reasons for the entry of Soviet troops into Czechoslovakia:

A) reforms carried out in Czechoslovakia could undermine the influence of the USSR in the country B) there was a threat of disintegration into the Czech Republic and Slovakia

IN) a sharp increase in the number of anti-government protests G) none of the answers are correct

6. One of the tasks of the foreign policy of the USSR in 1965-1985. was:

A) non-interference in the internal affairs of other countries B) establishing friendly relations with Western countries

IN) elimination of the threat of the collapse of the "socialist camp" G) all of the above is correct

7. Indicate the years to which the promotion of the "Brezhnev Doctrine" in the USSR refers:

A) early 60s. B) late 60s IN) early 70s . G) early 80s

8. "Velvet revolutions" in Eastern Europe took place:

A) in 1989 B) in 1990 IN) in 1991 G) in 1956

9. ATS and CMEA were disbanded:

A) in 1989 . B) in 1990 IN) in 1991 G) in 1985

10. Specify the states that created the CMEA in 1949:

A) England, France, Belgium, Luxembourg B) USA, Canada, Western European countries

IN) USSR and states of Eastern Europe G) none of the answers are correct

11. The Warsaw Pact Organization was a military-political alliance of the following states:

A) USSR and friendly countries of Eastern Europe B) Western Europe

IN) USA, Canada and Western Europe G) Asia Pacific

12. Indicate the city of Europe, in which in 1961 the wall that blocked it was erected, which became a symbol of the Cold War:

A) Prague B) Warsaw IN) Berlin G) Paris

13. Popular uprisings against a totalitarian state in the 50-70s. took place in:

A) in Hungary, Poland, East Germany B) in Albania, Czechoslovakia, Poland IN) Bulgaria, East Germany, Czechoslovakia G) in Italy, Germany, Belgium

14. "Velvet Revolution" is:

A) rejection of radical transformations of a revolutionary type B) bloodless change of the communist regime to a liberal one

IN) disintegration of the federal state G) none of the answers are correct

15. The events that took place in 1968 in Czechoslovakia and were called the "Prague Spring" are connected:

A) attempted military coup B) workers' demands for higher wages

IN) demands for democratic reforms in the country G) all of the above is correct

Caribbean crisis.

Topic 6. Asia, Africa, Latin America. Problems of modernization

Independent work No. 6

Historical analysis of the material

1. Euro Atlantic Civilization

Anglo-American civilization (EC), which currently consists of 2 parts - the European Union (integration began on the Anglo-Saxon basis - EU) and North America ( USA, Canada) plus Australia. Center of gravity, leader USA, But EU begins a struggle for leadership.

Very interesting thoughts about this country can be read from the Tomsk economist Mikhail Muravyov: "States - management of other people's capital, high-tech, way of life, way of thinking.

The main characteristics of the EC

	Countries included in this civilization	Language	GDP at PPP in trln. dollars	Population in million people	GDP per capita in dollars	Territory in thousand sq. km.	Population density person/sq.km.
	Euro-Atlantic Civilization (EC)
1	USA	English	14260	307.212	46417	9827	31
2	European Union	English	14510	492.852	29441	4893	101
3	Canada	English, French	1287	33.487	38433	9985	3
4	Australia	English	819	21.262	38519	7741	3
5	New Zealand	English	117	4.213	27653	268	16
	Total		30993	859.026	36079	32714	26

Note.

1. Statistical information hereinafter is borrowed from the site "Countries of the World".

2. PPP - purchasing power parity

Economy

So far, from an economic point of view, this is the most successful (dominant) civilization with imperial ambitions.

USA - organizer global financial system built on a single world currency (Uniform Measure of Valuesince 1944 years under the Bretton Woods agreement, and since 1970, the connection between the dollar and gold has been broken) - "dollar, $", and beneficiary (beneficiary) from this role.70% all international financial transactions are carried out in $ ! The economy is 50% virtual-speculative, not real - finance, securities, insurance.

2 major currencies that are in interaction-confrontation:

$ - Dollar - EC currency and at the same time world currency.

€ - Euro - regional currency Western Europe. At first, € even began to compete with $, but during the unfolding global crisis, it began to fail. So far, the dollar, as it was, remains the main currency of the EC and the whole world.

I have an idea to create based on the US dollar, Canada and the Mexican peso a single currency"amero ". But this is more like a project than a project.

Population

The population of the Earth - 6.878 billion people. Every second, 2.58 people are added on our Earth.

The EC is 860 million people, i.e. 860/6878*100% = 12.5%.

US population (307 million people), which is 307/6878 * 100% = 4.46% of the planet's population, consumes 40% of the earth's resources. Hence the exclusive standard of living (material, of course, but not spiritual).

Ideology

liberal-bourgeois ideology, which is about is writtencore liberal values:

Private propertyand competition - the division of people,competitionfor material goods, selfishness,

Freedom,

Democracy,

Market and money

confessions many, but original white population: Protestant Christianity - par excellence. Latino Catholicism, Islam of blacks and Semites, immigrants from the Near and Middle East, is gaining weight.

Classic, finished piece consumer civilization built solely on the basis of dominancemarket and legal law . An exemplary model of simulated democracy based on a 2-party seesaw.

The main symbol of the EC - The Statue of Liberty in New York: "Bring to me all the weary, all the poor who yearn to breathe the air of freedom." This is a paraphrase (profanation) of the words of Christ: “Come to me, all you who labor and are burdened, and I will give you rest” (Matthew 11:28). ®

This means that in the EC the SAVIOR is not Christ, but the Idol of Freedom.

Aggressive and unsuccessful attempts to spread their ideology and practice of "the market and the democratic rights of man" in the world, caused irritation and rejection of other civilizations.

Quiet instruments (creeping) aggression - dollar as world currency , business English language, Hollywood film productions, network-centric wars, funds and agents of influence, education in USA and GB or by their standards, content at their own expense by many international organizations.

The dollar, paper (secured by nothing except the authority of the USA) is the basis of American economic power and the well-being of their citizens.But he is weakening and therefore the empire of Pax Americana is gradually aging and withering. This is a dying empire.

The crisis of the Euro-Atlantic civilization - the vanity of the pursuit of material happiness

The thing is that in America (primarily) already in the last quarter of the last century there was a degeneration of classical (real) capitalism into speculative financial capitalism, in which incomes and profits are largely made "out of thin air", that is, through the manipulation (speculation) of fictitious capital. The financial system of the world is incurably sick, because the dollar is already a fiction.

There is an opinion that the leader of the US EC may simply fall apart in the future from 2020 to 2050 under the pressure of a global permanent crisis (political scientist Igor Panarin “The collapse of the dollar and the collapse of the USA”, 2009) and interracial and interethnic contradictions (American researcher Thomas Chittam “The collapse of the USA . Second Civil War 2020", 1997).

With t.z. anonymous authors "Project Russia" The USA will die for the same reason as the USSR - the lack (loss) of faith (ideals and values): the USSR lost faith in Communism, and the USA is losing faith in Freedom and Democracy, as a universal principle of organizing society.

A more Europe (EU) Today(2010) also in its own way"a sick man":

The financial system based on the € is literally bursting at the seams and Poland, following England, wants to abandon the euro;

Southern Europe (Greece, Spain, Portugal and Italy) is in crisis and no billion euros will be enough;

Europeans refuse to participate in the fighting in Afghanistan and abandon their own military forces in favor of the NATO umbrella;

The aging of the population and the increasing budgetary burden of maintaining this population;

The EU refuses visa-free space with Russia and Ukraine, and people from the African Maghreb are increasingly populating old Europe.

Objectively, from the financial and economic point of view, the US and the EU are serious competitors, which, of course, does not contribute to the final integration of this civilization.

Hardly The EU will fall apart, but the world center of power will not work - the US will remain in the role of the sole and main leader of the EC for the time being.

The concept of "Atlanticism" was substantiated by the American geopolitician N. Speakman (1893-1943). According to his idea, the role of the Mediterranean Sea as an area of distribution of the ancient Roman-Hellenistic civilization passed to the Atlantic Ocean, on the western and eastern shores of which peoples live, connected by a unity of origin, culture, and common values. This, in his opinion, predetermined the rapprochement of the countries of the Atlantic space under the leadership of the United States, as the strongest and most dynamic of them.

The foundations of "Atlantic solidarity", laid during the Second World War of 1939-1945, were strengthened after the adoption by the United States in 1947 of the "Marshall Plan", a program of assistance to the countries of Western Europe, which made it possible to stabilize its economy and strengthen the foundations of political democracy. The commonality of principles, values, interests in maintaining stability and prosperity of the countries of the North Atlantic zone of the world was recorded in 1949 in an agreement on the creation of a military-political union - the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

The strategic interests of the ruling elites on both sides of the Atlantic coincided during the Cold War, which prompted them, despite elements of economic rivalry and different understanding of priorities in opposing international communism, to coordinate their policies. The term "Atlanticism" entered the political lexicon after 1961, when US President John F. Kennedy put forward the so-called Great Project for the creation of the Atlantic Community, which assumed the strengthening of the unity of the countries of North America and Western Europe. The United States supported integration trends in Western Europe, interacted with allies within the framework of international organizations - UN structures, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the seven most developed countries of the world, whose regular meetings of heads of government began in 1975 G.

The basic element of the Euro-Atlantic civilization was the USA, Great Britain and its "white" dominions (Canada, Australia). The military-political cooperation of these countries with the continental states of Western Europe laid the foundation for a closer alliance. With the adoption by Germany and Italy after the war, and then by the Eastern European states, of the liberal-democratic principles of organizing political life, the scope of Euro-Atlanticism expanded even more.

§ 33. "WELFARE SOCIETY": BASIC PARAMETERS

After the end of the Second World War, many European countries needed post-war economic recovery, its transfer to peacetime, and the activation of social policy. The ruling circles of democratic countries took into account the experience of the revolutionary events in Russia in 1917, the establishment of totalitarian dictatorships in Italy and Germany. This experience clearly showed that underestimation of the importance of social stability, especially in times of crisis, leads to the collapse of the political system. Even in cases where the degree of social protection of workers was high, but the forms and methods of implementing social policy lagged behind the demands of the workers, crises occurred. It is no coincidence that such a function of the state as ensuring social security has begun to play an increasing role in developed countries.

Formation of a socially oriented market economy. The experience of the 20th century, especially its first half, clearly showed both governments and business circles the importance of the stability of the social support of any transformations. In the process of modernization and reconstruction, which inevitably upset the balance in society, its restoration on a new basis should go in parallel with reforms or even outpace them. The main problem is related to the social cost of reforms and its fair distribution.

in Sweden in the 1930s. there was a model of economic democracy, assuming the absence of poverty. The main features of the Swedish model of socialism are considered to be a combination of a highly developed, highly efficient economy with a high level of consumption, employment, and the most advanced social security system in the world. The basis of this model is a mixed economy, a combination of a private entrepreneurial market system with socially oriented state mechanisms for the redistribution of generated income.

The experience of Sweden was used in the reconstruction and modernization of the economy of West Germany after the Second World War. The reforms that led to the creation of a socially oriented market economy in Germany are associated with the activities of the Minister of Economics in the first post-war government of Germany, L. Erhard. The government proceeded from the fact that the hardships of restoration should be evenly distributed among all sections of the population, because overcoming the consequences of the war is a national task. During the financial reform of 1948, which stabilized the German mark, pensions and salaries were exchanged in a ratio of 1: 1, half of the deposits could be exchanged at the rate of 1: 10, the temporarily frozen second half - at the rate of 1: 20. Taking into account the fact that deposits belonged mainly to the wealthy, this measure increased the degree of social equality. The monetary obligations of banks were canceled, the obligations of enterprises were recalculated at the rate of 1: 10. Having received cash at a time to pay salaries, then the enterprises had to exist by selling their products. In 1951, a law was passed that introduced the practice of social partnership: representatives of trade unions received up to 50% of the seats on the supervisory boards of companies in the leading industries of mining and metallurgy, then the so-called workers' shares appeared, providing employees of corporations with a share in profits.

The measures taken meant a partial expropriation of the property of the wealthy in order to restore the economy and create incentives for employees to increase labor productivity. This laid the foundation for the German "economic miracle" - the accelerated development of the 1950s and 1960s, which returned Germany to one of the leading places in the world economy.

in the USA in the 1960s. under President L. Johnson, the concept of creating a "Great Society" in which there is no poverty was put forward.

Methods for the implementation of social policy. Within the framework of a socially oriented market economy, the most important function of the authorities was to create guarantees of real equality of rights and opportunities for citizens through the redistribution of income and state support for the poor. At the beginning of the 20th century, the state spent most of its money on the army and the police. Through the budget redistributed, on average, from 10% to 15% of the gross domestic product (GDP). By the end of the century, in developed countries, the state controlled about 50% of GDP. Most of the expenses were directed to the development of education systems, medical care, social and pension security, and the creation of new jobs.

The state social policy of developed democratic countries performs a wide range of tasks. But the most important of them is the provision of equal starting opportunities for young people entering conscious life, compensation for those unfavorable social factors that generate inequality. This does not imply income equalization. Their level is determined in the course of free competition in the labor market. At the same time, employees who are able to perform more complex functions, of course, receive more remuneration. But with a developed system of social protection, people who find themselves on the lower rungs of the social pyramid, and even more so their children, do not find themselves in a hopeless situation.

The state achieves the goals of its social policy by various means. The most obvious method is direct financing of the social sphere at the expense of the budgets of central and local authorities. Budget funds are used to create new jobs, to develop the state health care system, education, pensions, unemployment benefits, disability benefits, development programs for territories that have become social disaster zones, housing construction for the poor, and so on.

Indirect methods of carrying out social policy are widespread. Thus, the taxation system is not only a source of resources for the implementation of social programs. It plays the role of a means of regulating the ratio of incomes of poor and rich citizens. In the 1990s in developed countries, the ratio between the incomes of the poorest 20% and the richest 20% of families ranged from 1:4.3 in Japan to 1:7.4 in the United States (in Russia, this proportion is 1:11.4). The system of progressive taxation, a larger tax on persons receiving large incomes, a tax on real estate, which is more for the rich, on inheritance did not exclude the possibility of receiving more pay for more complex, skilled work. At the same time, this system lowered the level of social envy.

The question of what kind of gap in the income level of the poor and the rich in society is considered normal depends on historical and cultural traditions, the characteristics of the stage of development being experienced. Important, for example, is the comparability of access to good-quality food, consumer goods, including prestigious ones (cars, audio-video equipment, etc.). In a market economy, the state does not directly interfere in the pricing process. However, there are indirect measures (such as US antitrust laws, fixed prices for state-owned enterprises, tax maneuvers on imported products, anti-inflationary policies, etc.) that allow price stability to be achieved at a relatively low level.

An important lever of the social policy of the state is legislative activity. This is especially true for the area that is associated with the regulation of labor conflicts, the creation of conditions, the activation of social work of civil society structures. The state recognizes the right of workers to strike, to conclude collective agreements, and creates mechanisms for mediation in resolving labor disputes. This provides ordinary citizens with a system of legal protection that plays an important role in maintaining stability in society. If a person faced with social injustice can rely on the protection of the law, he has no need for violent action. In the United States, the relevant laws were adopted in 1935, in most European countries - after the Second World War.

With the intensification of the social policy of the state, the scale of social activities in the field of helping the poor, the needy, not only did not decrease, but even increased. A system of local, national, international organizations and associations has developed, solving the following main tasks.

First, helping people solve their problems in areas where government programs are insufficient or ineffective. Thus, in the conditions of post-industrial modernization, more attention has been paid to the social rehabilitation of new marginalized people, helping them to master new professions, and involving unemployed youth in socially useful activities.

Secondly, attracting the attention of the public, politicians, the state to social, humanitarian, environmental problems, organizing campaigns to solve them. At the same time, the concern of humanitarian organizations in developed countries is increasingly caused by the problems of hunger and poverty in the states of Asia, Africa, and Latin America.

Thirdly, the collection of additional funds for solving social problems, providing humanitarian assistance. These funds often act as a significant addition to government programs.

In developed countries, a tripartite model of social protection has developed. It is supported by the policy of the state, important components are semi-state and private foundations cooperating with the state, charitable organizations, and business is an active participant. This model works in solving specific problems of healthcare, education, and other social issues. In the overall structure of spending on medical care for the population, the share of the state on average in developed countries reaches 16.3%. Part of the expenses is covered by charitable organizations, part is paid by employers and deducted from the salary of employees under social insurance programs, going to the account of the relevant funds. Unclaimed funds at the moment can be invested in shares, government securities, which ensures the attraction of additional funds. Pension funds operate in a similar way.

DOCUMENTS AND MATERIALS

“The parties to this treaty reaffirm their faith in the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations and their desire to live in peace with all peoples and governments They are determined to secure the freedom, common heritage and civilization of their peoples based on the principles of democracy, individual liberty and the rule of law .

They seek to promote stability and prosperity in the North Atlantic.

They decided to combine their efforts in the interests of collective defense and the maintenance of peace and security.”

From the agreement of six European states on the creation of the European Economic Community, March 25, 1957:

"Article 117.

Member States considered it necessary to promote the improvement of the living and working conditions of workers<...>They believe that this evolution will be the result of such a functioning of the common market, which contributes to the harmonization of social systems provided for in this treaty, and the convergence of legislative, regulatory and administrative provisions.

QUESTIONS AND TASKS

1. What are the foundations of "Atlantic solidarity"? What countries are in NATO? Explain why their union is called the Euro-Atlantic civilization?

2. What is a socially oriented market economy? What theory is it based on?

3. Why does economic modernization require a stable social base? Give examples of reforms that led to the creation of a socially oriented market economy?

4. Expand the meaning of the concept of "welfare society." Describe the methods of conducting an active social policy by democratic states.

5. Explain what the three-pronged model of social protection is in developed countries. What do you think of its effectiveness? Does a similar model exist in our country? Justify your conclusion.

§ 34. CRISIS OF THE DEVELOPMENT MODEL: 1970s.

Any model for solving social problems sooner or later becomes obsolete with a change in the situation. This may be due to the growth of unsatisfied social demands, the exhaustion of the possibilities of following the previous development model. These two reasons are usually related. According to the estimates of economists in developed countries, social stability is ensured only when the standard of living of the bulk of the population during the life of one generation approximately doubles. Meanwhile, in the early 1970s. developed countries experienced a series of economic crises (1969-1970, 1974-1975), which affected Italy and Germany for the first time after the war. In the US, in many industries, the decline reached 20-30%. To a large extent, the last crisis was provoked by an increase in oil prices on the world market after the Arab-Israeli conflict in 1973.

The damage suffered by the Euro-Atlantic countries from the rise in oil prices once again drew attention to the fact that even the most developed of them depend on the world market situation and the general state of international relations.

New Development Challenges in the 1970s By the beginning of the 1970s. a situation has developed in which the growth of international obligations of states began to influence the choice of a strategy for further development.

Participation in international institutions, which ensures the stability of the world economy, was beneficial for developed countries. They received favorable conditions for foreign trade, international guarantees for the stability of the national currency, and the absence of trade wars from possible competitors. At the same time, the freedom of action of the state in solving internal problems was increasingly limited. In conditions when the state of the economy of individual countries is determined by the state of affairs in the world market, the state loses most of the levers of control over the economic sphere of public life.

This situation began to cause dissatisfaction with the policy of the state. Supporters of a wider use of the advantages of the international division of labor believed that the very institution of statehood, focused on ensuring national interests, had lost its effectiveness and was outdated. At the same time, among those segments of the population that did not directly benefit from deepening international integration, there was a growing conviction that their vital interests were being sacrificed to international, foreign corporations. Even in the United States, which was relatively prosperous by most indicators, over the last three decades of the 20th century, the proportion of citizens who believe in the ability of the authorities to effectively solve society's problems has decreased from 70% to 20%.

Meanwhile, in the conditions of the beginning post-industrial modernization of the economy, the transition to the information society, the crisis of the model of the former social policy manifested itself. The conditions of modernization have complicated the social structure of society, since the industrial and information structures are characterized by various contradictions, style and way of life, consumption. The implementation of a unified socio-economic policy turns out to be difficult, the state is faced with heterogeneous, hardly compatible requirements. The interests of industries with high technology, industries directly integrated into the structure of world economic relations, based on the capital of TNCs, demanded a reduction in taxes, customs duties, and a reduction in the role of the state in the socio-economic sphere. Less competitive, less technologically equipped industries required government subsidies and protectionism (high customs duties on imported products). The alternative was their liquidation, the growth of unemployment and social tension. Attempts to accelerate the modernization of the economy caused strong internal resistance, fear of those lifestyle changes that could occur in a short time.

Communists and the New Left in Europe. A symptom of the deepening problems was the growing influence of the left in many developed countries, in particular the communist movement.

After the defeat of Nazi Germany in many countries liberated from fascism (France, Italy, the states of Eastern Europe), coalition governments came to power, including communists, socialists, whose priority was to restore the economy. However, the cooperation turned out to be short-lived. In Western Europe, the trust of coalition partners, voters in the communists was undermined after the establishment of totalitarian communist regimes in Eastern Europe.

The fact that in the conditions of the beginning of the "cold war" the CPSU began to demand unconditional support from the non-ruling communist parties for its foreign policy, which was not popular in Western countries, also played its role. The lingering traditions of the Comintern, the threat of excommunication from the communist movement forced the communists in developed countries to submit to dictate, putting themselves in a position of political isolation, in which they lost their positions, influence and authority from year to year. A serious blow to the authority of the communist movement was the exposure of the crimes of Stalinist totalitarianism by the XX Congress of the CPSU, a quarrel between the communist parties ruling in the USSR and China, which led to armed conflicts on the border of the two countries.

However, in the late 1960s and early 1970s, in France, the communists secured the support of about 20% of the voters, in Italy - about 30%. To a large extent, their success was associated with the promotion of the platform of the so-called Eurocommunism. A number of theorists and leaders (R. Garaudy in France, E. Fischer in Austria, E. Berlinguer in Italy) questioned the legitimacy of the claims of the CPSU that the social ideals of egalitarianism were realized in the USSR. The path of development associated with the violent seizure of power, civil war, the establishment of the dictatorship of one party, total state control over the economy, the restriction of democratic rights and freedoms, was regarded as leading to a dead end, to stagnation and decay. As an alternative, a variant of "socialism with a human face" or "national colors" was proposed, based on the values of liberal democracy traditional for European countries.

Even more alarming than the growth of the influence of communists striving to demonstrate moderation, among the ruling elites of Western countries was the growth of left-wing radicalism. The ideas of radicalism were based on the so-called neo-Marxism, which became the basis of the New Left movement. The founder of neo-Marxism is considered to be the Hungarian philosopher D. Lukach, tribute to him was paid by such thinkers of the 20th century as E. Fromm, G. Marcuse, T. Adorno, J.P. Sartre.

The emphasis in neo-Marxism among the "new left" was on the problems of alienating a person from influencing political and economic life, his isolation in society. Social development, both within the framework of liberal democracy and the totalitarian socialism of the Soviet model, was seen as a dead end, not leading to overcoming alienation. The "welfare state" was perceived as a bureaucratic machine, serving itself more than society, unable to take into account the interests and concerns of the individual. The solution was a revolution, which was expected to give rise to a new society, breaking with all previous history. The driving force behind this revolution was seen not as the working class, which, according to left-wing intellectuals, had become too mundane, striving only for material goods, integrated into the capitalist system, but the marginalized, who felt uncomfortable within its framework. These included rebellious intellectuals, especially young people, the unemployed, representatives of sexual minorities, drug addicts, and other such groups. The inhabitants of the underdeveloped countries (the "global village", challenging the "world city" - the developed countries of democracy) were also considered a revolutionary force.

The views of the "new left" in the 1960s-1970s. became the basis of a wave of left-wing extremism and terrorism that rose in developed countries against the backdrop of the exhaustion of the “welfare society” model. Its most striking manifestations were the "Red May" of 1968 in France (student protests that developed into riots that led to the resignation of President De Gaulle), "hot autumn" (1969) in Italy, the actions of terrorist groups - the "Red Brigades" in Italy, the "Red Army" in Germany, etc.

Radical views began to manifest themselves among the trade union movement. Mass protests by miners demanding the maintenance of subsidies for the losing profitability of the coal industry in 1974 led to the resignation of the Conservative government in the UK and early parliamentary elections.

DOCUMENTS AND MATERIALS

From the book by G. Marcuse “One-Dimensional Man. A Study of the Ideology of the Advanced Industrial Society. M., 1994. S. 335, 336, 337:

“At the stage of its highest development, domination functions as administration, and in the super-developed countries of mass consumption, administrative life becomes the standard of a prosperous life for the whole, so that even opposites unite to protect it. This is a pure form of domination. Conversely, its negation appears to be a pure form of negation. Its entire content seems to be reduced to one abstract demand for the abolition of domination - the only truly revolutionary need, the implementation of which would give meaning to the achievements of industrial civilization.<...>Hidden under the conservative mainstream of the people is a layer of outcasts and outsiders, exploited and persecuted representatives of other races and colors, the unemployed and the disabled. They are left out of the democratic process, and their life is the most immediate and real need for the abolition of unbearable conditions and institutions. Thus, their opposition is revolutionary in itself, even if it is not realized by them. This opposition strikes the system from the outside, so that it cannot evade; it is this elemental force that breaks the rules of the game and thereby exposes it as foul play. When they (the outcasts) unite and take to the streets, unarmed, defenseless, demanding the most basic civil rights, they know that they will face dogs, stones, bombs, prisons, concentration camps, and even death. But their strength is behind every political demonstration of the victims of the law and the existing order.<...>The specter of the end of civilization continues to roam within and outside advanced societies."

QUESTIONS AND TASKS

1. Explain why the models of social stability in developed countries did not stand the test of the crises of the 1960s and 1970s?

2. Why does modernization, the transition to the information society deepen social problems, dissatisfaction with state policy?

3. What is the reason for the political successes of the left forces in Europe in the 1960s and 1970s?

4. Describe neo-Marxism as the ideological and theoretical foundations of the activities of the left. Use G. Marcuse's judgments about the contradictions of a society with a socially oriented market economy.

§ 35. NEOCONSERVATIVE REVOLUTION in the 1980s AND ITS RESULTS

The decline in the efficiency of the socially oriented market economy, the loss of voters' confidence in the state, which provides "general welfare", stimulated the search for alternative ideas and development models.

Among the supporters of the ideas of Keynes, Galbraith and other theorists of extended state intervention in socio-economic relations in the name of smoothing out inequality, maintaining high effective demand, no new approaches have arisen. Neoliberals continued to believe that the expansion of the functions of the state in modern conditions not only does not threaten freedom, but, on the contrary, strengthens the guarantees of the rights and freedoms of citizens. Their main guarantor under the new conditions was no longer "natural law", but the "welfare" state itself, politically neutral, guided by rational considerations. Criticism of this state, populist tendencies began to be seen as threatening to establish the tyranny of an incompetent majority, as a necessary evil that has to be endured in the name of democracy, although the growing role of social and other mass groups becomes a source of threat to individual freedom.

According to the American political scientist B. Gross, such an evolution of neoliberalism was able to transform it into the ideology of a new totalitarianism, "fascism with a human face", where the state and related structures will establish total control over citizens, restrict their freedoms, believing that this is necessary in their own good name.

Neoconservatism as an ideological movement. An alternative to both neoliberalism and radicalism has become such an ideological trend as neoconservatism. He united various areas of ideological and political thought under the sign of traditional values: religious, national, cultural and political traditions, which for Western countries are associated with the ideals of democracy and the free market. In politics, neoconservatism is associated with the names of M. Thatcher, who was elected in 1979 as Prime Minister of Great Britain and D. Major, who replaced her in this post in 1992, the Republican R. Reagan, who became President of the United States in 1980, G. Kohl, Chancellor Germany in 1982-1998

The peculiarity of neoconservatism was that its adherents went to the polls under the slogans of change, turnaround, renewal, including by turning to traditions. At the same time, speaking about the preservation of traditional values, the neoconservatives combined them with the needs of modernization, offering a new understanding of them.

Regarding the welfare state as a bureaucratic monster that patronizes citizens and thereby restricts their freedom, crowding out the spirit of entrepreneurship, the neoconservatives called for a reduction in its role. M. Friedman became the main theorist of the economics of neoconservatism, who believed that the main attention should be paid not to the redistribution of the produced product, but to ensuring its constant growth.

Speaking for the revival of the authority of the family, school, church, appealing to the ethics of "democratic capitalism", which implies respect for law and order, discipline, restraint, patriotism, the neoconservatives received the support of the widest sections of society. Their arguments were listened to by entrepreneurs and representatives of the “middle class” who were interested in reducing the tax burden, the marginalized who considered social programs insufficient, and intellectuals who were concerned about the displacement of spirituality by rationalism and pragmatism. Neoconservatives referred to the fact that due to active social policy among the marginalized, groups of people have arisen who consider it more profitable to live on unemployment benefits than to work. Although there were no more than 1 - 2% of the economically active population of developed countries, the working citizens who paid taxes became convinced that they were feeding idlers, social dependents who did not want to work, at their expense.

There was no talk of a complete rejection of state interference in the sphere of socio-economic relations. It was about increasing the efficiency of the economy, its modernization, including through decentralization and partial reduction of social programs. Orienting people to rely on their own strength, to show initiative and responsibility, solidarity with each other, the neoconservatives tried to stimulate the activity of society.

Neoconservatives rejected both the ideal of free, anarchic competition of individuals opposing each other and the state, and the model of society where a person's life from birth to death is controlled by the state. The most promising was considered a society with the interaction of various socio-political structures, reflecting the religious, ethnic, social, everyday, professional and other interests of people.

Socio-economic policy of neoconservatism. The neo-conservative modernization of the economy was associated with the refusal to subsidize unprofitable industries, the sale to corporations on preferential terms of shares of inefficiently managed state-owned enterprises. A significant part of municipal housing was privatized, transferred to the ownership of tenants, which freed the budget of local authorities from the cost of repairing houses and public utilities.

The social policy was reformed. Part of the funds previously allocated as benefits to the poor remained addressed to them, but in the form of a loan to open their own small business, their own business. Thanks to this, a significant part of those in need acquired a source of income independent of the state.

The main opposition to neo-conservative policies came from trade unions. However, the neoconservative leaders did not set the goal of defeating the trade union movement. Only in those cases when trade unions tried to carry out strike actions that harmed citizens, the economy as a whole, were repressive measures used. Their example is the defeat of the union of air traffic controllers in the United States, whose leadership was held accountable for the illegal strike, and military controllers took the place of ordinary members.

In general, neoconservative governments sought to create a social base for reform policies. In those Western European countries where most of the workers were organized in trade unions, their representatives were included in the administrative bodies of enterprises, the supervisory boards of corporations, they were provided with access to information about reorganization plans. Where the role of trade unions was less (in the 1990s in Sweden, Norway, Denmark, trade unions consisted of 70 to 80% of employees, while in the USA - only 16%. On average, in developed countries, trade unions covered 26% of employees), other forms of workers' participation in modernization were used. During the modernization of the American corporation General Motors, associated with the abandonment of conveyor production and the transition to a robotic, modular production organization, 80% of highly qualified workers who avoided dismissal were guaranteed lifetime employment and a share in profits. Elements of workers' self-management were introduced: each brigade itself determined the rhythm, order and duration of work, being responsible only for the final result.

The measures taken within the framework of the “neo-conservative revolution” turned out to be decisive in the formation of the information society. Tax incentives for manufacturers introducing new technologies attracted the capital of TNCs to developed countries and increased the level of business activity. The removal of barriers to the free movement of goods, capital, and labor between developed countries, especially in Western Europe, and the acceleration of integration processes made it possible to take full advantage of the international division of labor. In the 1980s-1990s. in developed countries, the average annual growth rate of real income per employee was 1.4%. This testified to the success of the neo-conservative policy.

DOCUMENTS AND MATERIALS

From the work of I. Kristol "Confessions of a Genuine Neoconservative", in the collection: "USA: The Conservative Wave". M., 1984. S. 89-90:

“Neoconservatism is a current of thought that arose in the academic intellectual environment and was caused by disillusionment with modern liberalism.<...>

While neoconservatives respect the market as an economic mechanism, they are not libertarians like Milton Friedman and Friedrich von Hayek. Neoconservative concepts are fully consistent with the conservative welfare state, aptly called the social security state. Such a state assumes a certain share of responsibility, restructuring the relations that develop between people in the free market in order to give them a more humane coloring.<...>

Neoconservatives consider family and religion to be indispensable pillars of a healthy society. They assign a special role to these binding institutions of a free society, which reconcile the demands of life and society with the desire for freedom. Most neoconservatives believe that humanity's last hope is an intellectually and morally renewed liberal capitalism."

From the work of A. Schlesinger “Is liberalism dead?” in the collection: "USA: The Conservative Wave". M., 1984. S. 208-209:

“Conservatives disdain government and other instruments of social change because they dream of an automatically stabilizing economic system somewhere over the horizon that will solve all our problems. They see the private market as an infinitely accurate, sensitive, efficient and impartial mechanism capable of coping with all social and economic hardships. the degree to be willing to resort to government intervention in order to compensate for the failures of the market economy<...>

The strengthening of state power, far from suppressing the individual, provides many Americans with greater dignity and freedom than ever before. The individual freedom that has been destroyed in our time by the rise of state power has been nothing less than the freedom of Americans of color to be deprived of their constitutional rights, the freedom of entrepreneurs to exploit the labor of children and immigrants in factories, the freedom to condemn workers to starvation instead of low wages and yet demand barbaric duration. of the working day, the freedom to plunder national resources and pollute the environment, the freedom to deceive consumers through advertising and cheat them in the sale of securities - in short, these were the freedoms that a decent country can do very well without.

QUESTIONS AND TASKS

1. What were the main features of neoconservatism that distinguished it from other ideological currents - neoliberalism, radicalism? Why did he come to replace neoliberalism? Compare the views of the neoconservative I. Kristol and the neoliberal A. Schlesinger. Whose approach do you think is more reasonable?

2. Name the statesmen who carried out the ideas of neoconservatism in the domestic politics of their countries. What were the main measures of this policy?

3. Explain how you understand the term "neo-conservative revolution"? Why did it result in the acceleration of integration processes in the Western world?

§ 36. SOCIAL DEMOCRACY AND NEOLIBERALISM

In the 1990s the neoconservative wave in developed countries has begun to decline. The main tasks in the field of economic modernization have found their solution. The situation in the international arena has changed, which was associated with the collapse of the USSR, the collapse of totalitarian socialism in Eastern Europe. The influence of radical left forces in Western countries has fallen sharply. Under these conditions, neoconservatism's emphasis on defending the values of liberal democracy has become an anachronism in the eyes of voters. Concrete problems of social, ethnic relations, the establishment of a new world order, to which the neoconservative leaders were not ready, came to the fore. As a result, in the US presidential elections in 1992 and 1996. the leader of the Democratic Party B. Clinton won, in the UK in 1997 the leader of the Labor Party T. Blair became prime minister, in Germany in 1998 the Social Democrats won the majority of seats in the Bundestag and formed a coalition government with another left faction - the “Greens ". Overall, socialist, social democratic and liberal parties have found themselves in power in 13 of the 15 countries of the European Union. However, the system of value orientations and political guidelines of these parties has changed significantly since their inception.

Social democracy: stages of development. In 1951, the social democratic parties created an international association - the Socialist International (Socintern), which still operates today. The Frankfurt Declaration they adopted formulated the basic values of democratic socialism. They included an orientation towards the preservation of a democratic state of law, political pluralism, and the creation of a socially oriented market economy. Social democratic ideas spread not only in Europe, but also in the countries of Latin America, Asia and Africa, where the parties that entered the Socialist International were formed.

Initially, most social democratic parties defined Marxism as their ideological basis. This was noted, for example, in the Dortmund Program of Action of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) in 1952. However, already in the Vienna Program of the Socialist Party of Austria (1958) and the Bad Godesberg Program of the SPD (1959), the fundamental ideas of Marxism about the class struggle, the destruction private property and the socialization of the means of production. Other social democratic parties also followed this path.

The Bad Godesberg Program formulated the basic principles of modern social democracy: freedom, justice, solidarity as the main goals of the socialist movement. These three principles, to which the principles of equality and democracy are sometimes added, are reflected in the programs of most social democratic parties.

The central place in the concepts of democratic socialism was occupied by freedom, understood as the principle of self-determination of each person. Equality, which implies the equal rights of each individual to self-determination, recognition of his human dignity and interests, is the basis of justice. If equality and justice are opposed to freedom, they give rise to arbitrariness and egalitarian distribution.

This approach allowed social democracy to achieve great success in European countries. Having become an influential force in parliaments, having found themselves in power in many countries, the Social Democrats initiated serious reforms. These included the nationalization of a number of sectors of the economy, the creation of nationwide social security systems, the reduction of working hours, and so on. The ideas of social democracy were the basis for building a "welfare" state in Germany and Italy.

The ideology of modern European social democracy. In the 1970s-1980s. most of the socialist and social democratic parties, including in Sweden, again updated their programs. The impetus for this was the need to modernize the economy, which required additional investments in science and production, including by limiting government spending. The Swedish social democrats, declaring the full implementation of the idea of a "welfare" state, announced the need to develop a new Swedish model based on limiting the role of the state and decentralizing social programs. In theoretical terms, the ideal of socialism as a society of universal equality began to be regarded as a vector of movement, and not a specific goal (in the spirit of Bernstein's interpretation - "the movement is everything, the ultimate goal is nothing"). The program of the French Socialist Party (1988) emphasized that "socialist society is not so much a desire for the end of history as a movement towards socialism, building up reforms and transforming social relations, changing the behavior of people and their relations with each other."

Taking into account the new attitudes, the emphasis began to be placed on short-term programs aimed at solving specific problems, practical approaches to which differed little from conservative ones. This opened up opportunities for broad inter-party cooperation, the creation of supra-party coalitions in the name of solving national development problems.

The collapse of the international communist movement also contributed to the strengthening of the influence of social democracy. After the collapse of the USSR and the final bankruptcy of the Soviet model of socialism, most of the communist parties in developed countries (all those with mass support) either completely merged with social democratic parties or split, losing influence on voters.

The main ideas and achievements of neo-conservatism in terms of modernizing the economy, supporting private entrepreneurship, and measures to limit tendencies towards bureaucratization of the central apparatus of state power were not questioned. To the extent that a policy based on neo-conservative ideals turned out to be effective in solving the problems of post-industrial modernization of society, it began to be carried out in the 1980s. by all political forces, including those who do not share the philosophy of neoconservatism. So, in Spain, modernization carried out according to neo-conservative recipes was carried out by the government headed by the leader of the socialists (Socialist Workers Party) F. Gonzalez, in Italy - by a coalition government headed by the socialist B. Craxi, in France, the neo-conservative course was pursued under the socialist president F. Mitterrand .

This pragmatic approach was also reflected in the development of the theoretical thought of social democracy. In April 1998, T. Blair, the leader of the British Labor Party (the largest social democratic party), proposed dissolving the Socialist International and replacing it with a new type of union, including liberal parties (like the US Democratic Party), sharing the goals of a socially oriented policy. This idea was not supported by the French socialists, but was approved by the leader of the SPD, G. Schroeder, who also proceeded from the need to develop a broader alliance of parties that shared egalitarian ideals. At the same time, influential factions remain within most social democratic parties, fearing the loss of their own face of social democracy. In the SPD, this direction is headed by O. La Fontaine.

In developed countries, in line with liberal democracy, a consensus has been reached by the main political forces on the fundamental issues of the strategy of social development. It is carried out by them regardless of differences in the ideological, theoretical and philosophical views of their leaders and theoreticians.

Mass movements in political life. The loss of political influence by the "new left", the collapse of the communist movement, the preference given by the leaders of social democracy to solving current problems, have created a situation of vacuum on the left wing of spiritual and political life in developed countries. This vacuum has been filled to a certain extent by the activation of old, traditional and new democratic movements.

The traditional ones include, first of all, various movements of civil initiatives operating at the local level, setting specific tasks of a charitable nature (helping the poor, the elderly, large families, and so on), protecting specific interests (associations of tenants, consumers, etc.).

The activity of the women's (feminist) movement has increased significantly. It continues the tradition of the early 20th century suffragette movement that advocated giving women equal voting rights with men. By the end of the century, demands for equal rights for women had increased significantly. They reflected the aspirations of equal access with men to all types of labor activity, equal pay for equal work, equal distribution of rights and responsibilities in the family. The radical factions of the feminist movement, especially influential in the US and the UK, formulated the concept of a complete restructuring of society. Their ideology focuses on overcoming the legacy of a thousand-year-old culture of patriarchy, a system of social relations dominated by men.

An important factor in the socio-political life of many countries have become pacifist, anti-war, environmental movements. With the advent of nuclear weapons, the arms race and the contradictions fraught with war between the nuclear powers caused alarm among the public in most states of the world. However, the conviction in many countries of the impossibility of finding a basis for peace other than mutual intimidation prevented the anti-war movement from gaining real influence. In addition, the desire of many political forces, especially the communist movement, to use anti-war sentiment for their own political purposes, led to their discredit. Created in 1950, the World Peace Council (WPC), although it addressed calls for unity of action to social democrats, non-partisans, was under the predominant influence of the communists. This determined his support for only one side in the Cold War, namely the USSR, whose policy instrument the Higher Council of Europe looked like in the eyes of the public of the Western countries.

Spontaneous, mass anti-war movements arose only in individual countries, but for a short time and with very specific requirements. In the 1960s In the United States, a wave of mass protest movement rose against the expansion of the country's involvement in the Vietnam War. It was combined with the demands of equality for non-white Americans, the activation of the feminist youth movement. This anti-war movement did not develop any alternative ideology and ceased to exist with the conclusion of peace in Vietnam.

The situation changed in the 1980s, when a wave of a new pacifist movement, not associated with traditional political forces, arose in the conditions of the disruption of the détente process in most developed countries. Most of the participants in these movements not only condemned the policies of both superpowers that started a new round of the Cold War, but also proceeded from the idea of a transition to a new world order based on humanism, focused on preventing an ecological catastrophe. Pacifist, environmental movements did not have a common program of action, however, their ideas had a number of new features that made it possible to consider them as a potential core of a mass political force that was in opposition to most political parties and regimes.

First, the new social movements questioned the effectiveness of government institutions, the system of representative democracy as a source of bureaucratic tendencies, corruption, and selfish interests. The anti-systemism, reminiscent of the views of the "new left" of the 1960s and 1970s, was manifested, in particular, in the fact that the movements themselves did not create a fixed membership system, common for traditional parties of governing structures.

Secondly, the personal orientation towards raising the standard of living and consumption was rejected, while the social orientation towards increasing production and building up industrial potential was rejected. The type of development that would allow preserving the natural human habitat was considered as optimal.

Thirdly, in the international arena, the traditional system of relations associated with great-power, inter-bloc rivalry, confrontation, was seen as an anachronism. Particular attention was paid to the problem of the immorality of the situation in which a minority of the world's population enjoys all the benefits of technological progress, spends huge resources on the arms race, while poverty and destitution persist in vast territories.

Radical factions of alternative movements drew attention to their ideas with non-standard actions related to an open challenge to legal norms, including the blockade of military, environmentally hazardous facilities. In the early 1980s environmental movements in many countries took shape in parties (the Greens in Germany, Sweden, the United Greens and the Alternative List in Austria, etc.). The number of active supporters of alternative movements was small, however, in many countries they managed to exceed the threshold of 5% of the vote in parliamentary elections, securing their representation in parliaments. At the same time, they attracted the attention, and often the sympathy of the general population. Thus, in the United States, only 7% of the adult population considered themselves members of environmental movements, but 55% of voters expressed sympathy for them.

Alternative movements, ideologists of which were intellectuals, activists - students and young people who received higher education, and sympathizers - the overwhelming majority of voters, have spread not only in Western countries, but also in Eastern Europe, and partly in the USSR.

With the end of the Cold War and the decrease in the risk of a global nuclear war, the activity of such movements decreased, especially since they failed to formulate a coherent concept of an alternative world. Nevertheless, having created a system of developed international relations and mutual support, environmentalists, in particular the international organization Greenpeace (Green World) they created, continue to act as the main disturbers of political peace, the main bearers of alternative egalitarian values of the late 20th century. In Germany, the "greens" in the 1998 elections not only won representation in parliament, but also entered into a government coalition with the Social Democrats.

QUESTIONS AND TASKS

1. What social democratic parties do you know? What is the Socialist International?

2. Why in the 1990s. the influence of the social democrats increased?

3. What were the program settings of the Social Democrats? How did they differ and how were they similar to the ideas of neoliberals and neoconservatives?

4. Explain the reasons for the refusal of the Social Democrats of the West from the basic tenets of Marxism.

5. Show with specific examples what ideas of social democracy have been implemented

6. What are the reasons for the activation of mass democratic movements in the 1990s? Which of them can retain their role in the 21st century? Why?

§ 37. INTEGRATION OF DEVELOPED COUNTRIES AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

The most important factor that determined the high efficiency of the economies of Western Europe and North America, their ability to solve social problems, was the development of integration processes. After World War II, the rate of development of the foreign trade turnover of European countries was twice the rate of economic growth. In most Western European countries, products manufactured outside their borders (including parts and equipment) account for up to 50% of consumption.

Stages of integration in Western Europe. Western European integration has gone through several stages.

In 1947, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was concluded between 23 countries of the developed zone of the world. Its participants pledged to promote the development of foreign trade through the mutual reduction of taxes on imported products, the exclusion of customs wars. Subsequently, the scope of the GATT expanded, it included many countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America, it was transformed into the World Trade Organization (WTO).

In 1948, the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) was established. Initially, its function was to distribute aid provided by the United States to Europe under the "Marshall Plan" for the post-war economic recovery. Then it became a forum for multilateral economic consultations and the exchange of economic information. In 1960, the OEEC was renamed the OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development), and Japan joined its activities.

The Council of Europe was the first proper Western European structure designed to promote policy coherence in the economic, social, cultural, scientific, legal and administrative spheres. It was established in 1949, its founders were Belgium, Denmark, France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Great Britain.

With the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949, as an alternative to the revival of the Franco-German rivalry, French Foreign Minister R. Schuman put forward the idea of combining the economic potentials of Germany and France. As a follow-up to this plan, in 1951 the FRG, France, Italy, Belgium, Holland and Luxembourg established the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). It provided for the creation of a common market for the coal and metallurgical industries, the abolition of mutual customs duties, and the implementation of a single customs policy for products of countries that are not members of the ECSC. The chief administrator of the ECSC received the right to make decisions related to the implementation of the agreement, having the force of law in the territory of the participating countries.

In 1957, the ECSC members signed two documents that were of great importance for the development of European unity: the Treaty of Rome establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM). A common market for all types of products was created, the principle of free movement of goods, capital, services and labor was adopted. The implementation of this principle would not have been possible without the adoption of uniform standards of tax and social policy, unification of the legislative framework, which was identified as the task of integration. For the first time, supranational bodies were formed: the European Council as a legislative body, the Commission of the European Communities as an executive body, and the Special Court. In dealing with issues relating to integration, they had the right to take decisions of direct action, which come into force without the approval of national governments and parliaments.

The implementation of the provisions of the Treaty of Rome made it possible to reduce competition between producers of the countries participating in the integration, turning it to foreign markets. Manufacturers of the same type of products had the opportunity to either pool their capital or agree to the establishment of quotas for production volumes. At the same time, special efforts were directed at overcoming competition between farmers and winemakers in France, Italy and Germany. Along with quotas limiting production, high purchase prices for agricultural products were set at the expense of the general budget of the EEC.

The countries of Northern Europe tried to create an alternative model of integration by establishing the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) in 1960. Great Britain, Austria, Denmark, Ireland, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and Portugal became its members. The goal of EFTA was a gradual reduction of customs duties only on industrial products, the creation of supranational bodies, and the convergence of legislation was not expected. This model, which provides a lower level of integration than the EEC, turned out to be less viable. In 1973 Great Britain, Ireland and Denmark joined the EEC. The countries that remained in the EFTA signed an agreement in 1977 on the creation of a free trade area with the countries of the EEC, in 1991 - on a single European economic space.

Results of European integration. The freedom of movement of capital, goods, services and labor has led to a fairly rapid convergence of development and living levels in the countries of Western Europe. Seasonal and contractual labor movements to richer countries helped to solve employment problems in less developed countries. Pan-European programs for the development of backward regions also acted as a factor in accelerated economic growth.

Under the influence of integration, a unified model of economic policy gradually emerged, common to all developed Euro-Atlantic countries.

The main differences between them were related to the unequal level of state control over the economy, methods of influencing its development.

The first model was built on the fact that the impact on the pace of economic development, the level of business activity turns out to be monetary levers, due to changes in the level of taxes, bank discount rates. This method of regulation, typical of the United States, was used in Europe by Germany, England and Italy.

The second model assumed the development by the state itself of those sectors of the economy that were considered key. So, in France, as a result of modernization, which ensured an almost two-fold increase in industrial output over the period 1954-1958, the state owned 97% of the coal industry, 95% of the gas industry, 80% of the aviation industry, and 40% of the automotive industry. In total, the state owned about 36% of all national property. The subsequent stages of modernization assumed that the state would help private firms to strengthen their competitiveness, which would make it possible to create an open economy and cancel protectionist measures. Then, also with the participation of the state, large corporations capable of operating on the scale of an integrating Europe began to be created.

In the 1980s due to the high level of taxes, the aspirations of the state to control key sectors of the economy, the outflow of capital of TNCs from France began. This led to a slowdown in its development. To stop the flight of capital, France turned to the experience of neo-conservatism, partial privatization of the public sector, and tax cuts. This was in line with the policy started in 1979 in Great Britain and carried out in the Federal Republic of Germany and other countries of Western Europe.

Carrying out a special social and economic policy in a separate country participating in integration becomes impossible. Successful solutions are immediately borrowed by partners, unsuccessful ones, causing an outflow of capital, are forced to be revised. In addition, each integration participant is obliged to comply with the decisions of supranational bodies, which also limits the field of socio-economic experiments. This was the most important factor in the convergence of positions on the fundamental issues of social development of the main political parties of all countries of Western Europe, regardless of their ideological and political characteristics.

The further development of European integration sang in two main directions.

First, by including new members, the total number of which reached 15. In addition, for countries that are not ready for full integration in terms of the level and nature of economic development, an associate membership system was introduced. It implies a preferential regime in trade and economic relations with the countries of the European community, a gradual progress towards full membership. The status of associate members was given to Turkey, many former colonies of France in North Africa, it was introduced for the Eastern European states.

Secondly, due to the further deepening of integration, its extension to the political sphere of relations between European countries. The status of the European Parliament, which initially was only a forum for communication between representatives of the national parliaments of the EEC countries, has increased. Since 1970, direct elections to the European Parliament have been held. The EEC, according to the Single European Act that came into force in 1987, was transformed into the European Union (EU), which was supposed to become a “space without internal borders” that retained only a symbolic meaning. In 1993, the Maastricht Accords entered into force, ensuring the creation of a single European citizenship. Citizens of the EU countries can now live in any of them for an unlimited time without special visas, participate in elections to local authorities. The unification of legislation allows us to say that a single European system of legal norms has developed. A coordinated foreign and defense policy is being pursued. Mutual support of exchange rates prompted the next logical step: it is assumed that Europe will enter the 21st century with a single currency - the euro.

In fact, in the EU, on the basis of economic integration, a system of relations has developed that allows us to consider the EU as a state entity of a confederal type. Further deepening of the integration of the Euro-Atlantic countries is planned due to closer rapprochement between Western Europe and North America, where integration processes have also developed.

Integration processes in North America. In North America, in 1988, an agreement was concluded on the creation of a free trade zone between the United States and Canada; in 1992, Mexico joined it. The new structure was called the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). This agreement reflected the already existing very high degree of unity of the economies of the North American countries. Thus, more than 2/3 of Canada's and Mexico's exports went to the USA. The United States and Canada had a system of unified membership in trade unions. Cheap Mexican labor, up to 10-12 million seasonal workers, has long been recruited annually by American farmers. The NAFTA treaty only legitimizes this practice, providing legal protection to Mexican workers in the United States.

Between the EU countries and NAFTA, in addition to the military-political union (NATO) and the inter-parliamentary association (North Atlantic Assembly), common membership in the OECD, WTO, and other international economic organizations, agreements have already been concluded on the prevention of trade wars, trade rules. It is assumed that the beginning of the 21st century will be marked by the creation of the North Atlantic free trade zone, which will unite the most highly developed countries of the world with a similar type of political culture, a common civilizational heritage, and close interests.

European integration has become a role model for states in many regions of the world, although the question of how universal its experience is is debatable.

DOCUMENTS AND MATERIALS

From the Treaty of Six European States Establishing the European Economic Community, March 25, 1957:

"Article 2.

The Community aims, through the establishment of a common market and the progressive convergence of the economic policies of the Member States, to promote the harmonious development of economic activity throughout the Community, continuous and equal growth, greater stability, an accelerated rise in living standards and closer relations among the States it unites. Article 3

In order to achieve the objectives set out in the preceding article, the Community shall act in accordance with the conditions and at the pace provided for in this treaty in:

a) the abolition between the Member States of customs law and quantitative restrictions on the import and export of goods, as well as all other measures that have equivalent effects;

b) establishment of a common customs tariff and customs policy in relation to third countries;

c) removal of obstacles between Member States to the free movement of persons, services and capital;

d) the introduction of a common policy in the field of agriculture;

e) the introduction of a common policy in the field of transport;

f) establishing a regime that ensures the inadmissibility of distortions of competition in the common market;

g) application of procedures that allow coordinating the economic policies of the Member States and preventing imbalance in the balance of payments;

h) convergence of national laws to the extent necessary for the functioning of the common market;

i) the establishment of a European social fund, with a view to improving the employability of workers and raising their standard of living;

j) the establishment of a European investment bank designed to facilitate the economic growth of the Community through the generation of new resources;

k) associations of overseas countries and territories, with a view to expanding exchanges and making joint efforts for economic and social development.”

QUESTIONS AND TASKS

1. Why did the countries of Western Europe and North America achieve the greatest results in the integration processes?

2. Make a table "The main steps of Western European integration" using the following scheme:

Formulate conclusions about the results of integration processes.

3. Analyze the main features of the two models of economic development of the Euro-Atlantic countries: North American and Western European. What is their difference? Why did France have to adjust its development model?

4. At what stage of integration are the countries of Western Europe currently? What are the prospects for their further rapprochement?

The strategic interests of the ruling elites on both sides of the Atlantic coincided during the Cold War, which prompted them, despite elements of economic rivalry and different understanding of priorities in opposing international communism, to coordinate their policies. The term "Atlanticism" entered the political lexicon after 1961, when US President John F. Kennedy put forward the so-called Great Project for the creation of the Atlantic Community, which assumed the strengthening of the unity of the countries of North America and Western Europe. The United States supported integration trends in Western Europe, interacted with allies within the framework of international organizations - UN structures, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the seven most developed countries of the world, regular meetings of the heads of governments of which began with 1975