Grade life cycle(LCA) is an examination (list or inventory) of the resources used in the manufacture, use and disposal of products, and an assessment of their impact on environment. LCA can also be applied to technologies. The first step is to determine the scope of the study. At this stage, the boundaries are established through which material resources and energy enter this cycle, and products and waste released into the air and water, as well as solid waste, leave this cycle. The study may cover the extraction of raw materials, production, transportation and use of products up to the point of disposal or recycling. Such an examination is quite specific and based on facts, and must be carried out in accordance with the standards ISO.

The second stage is the environmental impact assessment. The criteria used in the examination are objective, but it is difficult to assess this impact, since the impact thresholds for a number of reasons may be different in different places. We have already mentioned the example of reservoirs into which sewage is discharged, which can be very different - from a shallow river to an estuary.

Standards ISO on LCA were developed as part of an international collaboration coordinated by the Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) and the EU Commission (CES). The following standards have been released:

750 14040:1997 - LCA. Principles and foundations;

ISO 14041:1998 - LCA. Goals, scope definitions and status analysis;

ISO 14042:2000 - LCA. Life cycle impact assessment;

ISO 14043:2000 - LCA. The concept of the life cycle;

ISO/TS 14048:2000 - LCA. Data storage format;

ISO/TR 14049:2000 - LCA. Application examples ISO 14041 to goals, scope definitions and state analysis.

Life cycle assessment is useful for identifying and quantifying points in the life cycle where significant environmental impacts occur, as well as assessing the impact of life cycle changes (for example, replacing one technology with another). An example of an LCA is provided in a joint work of firms Tetra Pak, Stora Enso and the Swedish Forestry Industries Federation with an analysis of carton minimization and changes in printing technology, polymer extrusion coating, distribution, recovery and recycling systems, all of which reduced the environmental impact in the life cycle of a liter milk carton.

Conclusion

Current state problems of paper and cardboard are not caused by environmental considerations. Their secondary processing began to be used at least 100 years ago for technical and commercial reasons. In 2002, waste paper provided about 45% of the world demand for fiber semi-finished products. The amount of collected and recycled fiber is increasing for several reasons:

Increasing demand for fiber with increased production of paper and paperboard; increasing the collection of waste paper through increased public awareness and the introduction of waste management programs.

You can list the benefits of each of the three main sources of fiber:

1. Cellulose is a flexible fiber that allows for stronger products; after bleaching chemically pure pulp, its smell and taste become neutral, which allows it to be successfully used for packaging food products that are sensitive to taste and smell; processing aids are recovered and reused; the energy used in the production is renewable, as it comes from the non-cellulosic components of the wood.
2. Wood pulp is a rigid fiber that gives paper and cardboard bulk, that is, giving an increase in thickness for a given mass per unit area (g / m 2); this allows the production of more rigid products compared to products based on other fibers; provides a high yield of wood; they can be chemically treated for bleaching, have a sufficiently neutral odor and taste to allow packaging of many food products that are sensitive to taste and odors.
3. Recycled fiber has the necessary functional properties and is cost effective. Its quality depends on the original paper or cardboard. The use of recycled fibers in the manufacture of paper and paperboard is socially accepted and economical, but its environmental benefits have not been proven. It is believed that the main advantage in terms of ecology is the "preservation of forests" through recycling and waste disposal.

Another advantage is that recycled fibers retain the solar energy originally stored in it, and this energy is consumed in the production and use of virgin fibers. However, energy is consumed in the collection of waste and the delivery of waste paper to processing plants; in addition, proportionately more energy is required for the manufacture of secondary products. In the production of paper and board with recycled fiber, additional losses occur, and since equivalent recycled products have more fiber, proportionally more water must be evaporated during production. Since fossil fuels provide all this energy, emissions to the atmosphere are also proportionately larger.

These facts are not presented out of a desire to be polemical, but solely to contrast them with the notion that the use of recycled fiber is somehow better for the environment. In logistical terms, primary fibers are also necessary for recycling. It is difficult to replace virgin fiber with recycled one in a short time, and economic constraints and society's need for waste disposal will lead to an increase in the recovery and use of waste paper. This is important because the sustainability of resources depends on both environmental impacts and economic and social needs.

You can point to the specific advantages of different types of fibers and their combination in obtaining different types of paper and paperboard intended for different uses. Not all fibers are fully interchangeable, and therefore it is inappropriate to insist on a mandatory minimum level or content of recycled fiber.

Virgin fiber is required to meet the performance requirements of many industrial paper and paperboard applications. It is also necessary to maintain the quality of the recovered fibers and the total quantity required by the industry as a whole. Virgin fiber is also needed to replace (replenish) recycled fibers lost during reprocessing. Fibers cannot be regenerated indefinitely; in addition, processing reduces the length of the fibers and, ultimately, they remain in the sludge. Therefore, it can be argued that both primary and secondary fibers are necessary in practice.

Renewability of resources has been shown to depend on social, economic and environmental factors. Many point out that environmental disputes on certain issues such as the ratio of virgin and recycled fibers in products have already grown into debates characterized by a more systematic approach to environmental problems, namely:

• extraction of raw materials;
• using energy to make paper and board;
• production of packaging from them;
• compliance with air emissions, wastewater and solid waste standards at all stages;
• ensuring the needs of products in packaging at all stages of the life cycle - packaging, distribution, transportation, sale and use by the end user;
• disposal of packaging at the end of its life cycle with the possibility of its reuse, recycling, incineration with energy recovery or landfill.

The system as a whole must be environmentally, economically and socially sustainable, and must include processes to ensure its continual improvement. The foregoing confirms that it is this approach that is currently used in the production and use of packaging based on paper and cardboard.

Stocks of wood for the pulp and paper industry are renewable. Independent forest certification is carried out in many regions, including North America and Europe. More than 50% of the energy used in the pulp and paper industry comes from renewable sources. Enterprises that do not use biomass in their production process and plants that are supplied with electricity are in the same position from the point of view of society in terms of the resources used.

Currently, energy is obtained mainly from fossil fuels, but the share of renewable resources is constantly growing. Businesses have increased their energy efficiency through cogeneration (CHP) and reduced their emissions by switching from coal and oil to natural gas. Water consumption has also decreased, and the quality of wastewater has improved. The amount of recycled paper and paperboard, as well as the proportion of recycled fibers used in the production of paper and paperboard, has increased.

With its activities in all these areas and thanks to independent expertise for compliance with international environmental standards (ISO 14000, EMAS) and quality management (ISO 9000) firms involved in the production and use of paper and cardboard packaging continue to demonstrate their commitment to sustainability and continuous improvement.

Finally, an important characteristic of the pulp and paper industry, on which its claims of sustainability are based, is the role it plays in the global carbon cycle. The carbon cycle is the basis of the relationship between the atmosphere, sea and land (Fig. 2.5). All life on Earth depends on carbon in one form or another. Paper and cardboard are also included in this cycle because:

• atmospheric CO 2 is absorbed by the forest, and in the wood it turns into cellulose fibers;
• trees in their totality form forests;
• forests have a significant impact on climate, biodiversity, etc. by storing solar energy and CO 2 ;
• the main raw material for paper and cardboard is wood;
• non-cellulosic components of wood contribute more than 50% of the energy used to make paper and board, which leads to the fact that CO 2 is again returned to the atmosphere;
• part of paper and cardboard used for a long time (for example, books), as well as timber, act as a “carbon sink”, removing CO 2 from the atmosphere;
• when paper and cardboard are burned after use with energy recovery and when biodegraded in landfills, they release CO 2 into the atmosphere.

The paper industry is investing in forestry. This leads to the accumulation of new wood, and its volume significantly exceeds the volume of cut wood. In addition, the amount of CO 2 used to produce new wood exceeds the amount generated when biofuels are used in paper and board production, and at the end of their life cycle through energy recovery combustion or biodegradation.

Rice. 2.5. Carbolic (carbon) paper and board cycle

Thus, the pulp and paper industry effectively contributes to the development of forestry and removes CO 2 from the atmosphere, which serves the desired goal of ensuring the sustainable development of society.

This topic is especially relevant in modern times, since the life cycle of products is of great importance. Firstly, it directs managers to analyze the activities of the enterprise from the point of view of both present and future positions. Secondly, the product life cycle aims at carrying out systematic work on planning and developing new products. Thirdly, this topic helps to form a set of tasks and justify marketing strategies and activities at each stage of the life cycle.

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use of supporting materials. Similarly, one can evaluate whether energy is being used efficiently.

Mapping method(or drawing up situational plans) is widely used to collect, visually analyze and present audit results. More often, a whole set of thematic maps is developed, reflecting, for example, the location of sources of air pollution, soil, surface and groundwater, unauthorized waste disposal (including their accumulation on the industrial site), irrational use of resources (water, energy, raw materials, materials). achieved as a result of the implementation of the environmental audit recommendations.

Need for instrumental analyzes when conducting an environmental audit, it occurs quite rarely, mainly when conducting an audit of the state of an industrial site and an audit of potential liability. At the same time, simple methods and portable equipment can be used by auditors to assess the extent of a problem or provide documentary evidence when assessing a baseline.

IN At the conclusion of the audit, it is very important to prepare a summary report for management

And discuss intermediate results. A summary report is presented during the final meeting with the management of the audited organization. This stage allows you to avoid mistakes, clarify mutual positions, and determine the emphasis on the details of the presentation of the results and recommendations in the final report.

The criterion for the success of the audit as a whole is always the applicability of the developed recommendations and the results that the enterprise achieves by implementing organizational and technical solutions, the possibility of which was identified as a result of the environmental audit. This is the significance of the audit, the approaches and methods of which are used in the development of many environmental management tools used to identify and practically implement opportunities to reduce the negative impact on the environment.

7.2 Life cycle assessment

For the first time, life cycle assessment approaches (Life Cycle Assessment, LCA) were proposed by the international organization SETAC - the Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. As a result of work to prevent environmental pollution with persistent toxic compounds that can accumulate in living organisms and lead to long-term negative effects, scientists have come to the conclusion that there is a need for a tool to track the processes of transformation of resources that lead to the formation of harmful substances, their loss , release into products and dispersion in the environment.

Significant development of LCA methods was received in the 80's, when companies, in the interests of marketing policy, wanted to present their products to consumers as completely “environmentally friendly” (“environmentally

friendly”), that is, products whose production, consumption and disposal do not cause significant environmental damage. The first experiences of assessing the impact of products on the environment throughout the life cycle gave rise to certain doubts about the possibilities of using such approaches. It became obvious that no criterion by itself could be used for such an assessment. It was necessary to combine these criteria into one complex theory - the concept of the life cycle, which makes it possible to make the life path of the products under study "transparent" and facilitate access to each link in the life chain, the possibility of managing and changing them, and, as a result, minimizing the impact on the environment" du.

The method began to be frequently used not only by commercial, but also by state enterprises, national standardization bodies began work on formalizing the applied approaches, and soon there was a need to unify the LCA approaches. In 1997, ISO Technical Committee 207 completed work on a standard describing general approaches and principles of LCA - ISO 14040:1997. Further work a large number experts within the framework of subcommittee 5 of ISO / TC 207 made it possible to unify approaches to assessing the life cycle of products, to give official status to the work performed, to draw parallels to compare the environmental performance of alternative types of products. To date, 7 ISO 14000 series standards have been devoted to LCA.

Life cycle assessment

Collection of information and assessment of inputs and outputs, as well as possible environmental impacts throughout the life cycle of a product system.

Within the terminology of the ISO 14000 series, the life cycle is understood as successive and interrelated stages of a product system from the receipt of raw materials or natural resources to final disposal in the environment. The LCA literature uses the figurative term “from cradle to grave” to describe the idea of ​​a life cycle. That is, when assessing the life cycle, not only the stages of production are considered, but also, for example, the stages of extraction of natural resources, the manufacture of semi-finished products, auxiliary production, as well as its transportation to the consumer, use, waste disposal.

The life cycle assessment procedure necessarily includes (see Fig. 17)

setting the goal of the study and determining the boundaries of the system;

implementation of the inventory analysis of the life cycle, (collection of information and quantification of the input and output flows of substances and energy);

the life cycle assessment itself, that is, the identification and assessment of the magnitude and significance of existing and potential impacts;

interpretation of results, analysis of alternatives, development of conclusions and recommendations, analysis of their quality (critical analysis).

Structure of the life cycle assessment

Determining the goals and boundaries of the system

		Interpretation
	Inventory

impact

Area of ​​direct application:

Development and improvement of production;

Strategic planning;

Formation of public opinion;

Marketing;

Other.

Figure 17. General structure of the life cycle assessment (according to ISO 14040:1997).

The boundaries of the production system (geographical, physical) in each case are determined by the purpose of the study. For example, in order to assess the impact of products produced on the territory of a national park on its protected natural complexes, it is advisable to start the study with the transportation of raw materials to the place of their processing and local production of part of the necessary energy and complete it at the stage of transporting products to the consumer, if they are used outside the park. For completeness of the assessment, in the above example, it would be good to also take into account the impact on the territory under consideration as a result of the production of purchased electricity, which in this case is not possible, since electricity comes from the national network, which has many sources of different characteristics and location .

Performing an inventory analysis - a description of all types of product interaction with the environment - is a very laborious and critical part of the LCA (see Fig. 18). The completeness of the description of all types of waste, raw materials used and energy involved in the full life cycle of the product to final disposal or within selected system boundaries), the adequacy of the data obtained at this stage determines the quality of the assessment results as a whole.

It is quite difficult to quantify environmental impacts and perform a detailed comparative analysis. From a technical point of view, you can use various software products developed by

Natural resources

Energy, materials

Energy, materials

Emissions to the atmosphere, discharges to water bodies, solid waste, etc.

Energy, materials

Emissions to the atmosphere, discharges to water bodies, solid waste, etc.

Energy, materials

Emissions to the atmosphere, discharges to water bodies, solid waste, etc.

Energy, materials

Emissions to the atmosphere, discharges to water bodies, solid waste, etc.

Extraction of raw materials

Production

initial

components

Production

Usage

products

Disposal

products

Figure 18. The structure of the life cycle description.

relevant for LCA (for example, SimaPro allows inventory analysis and life cycle impact assessment and contains various recognized databases for assessing the impact of various factors).

Based on the results of the assessment, conclusions are drawn about the degree of the product's impact on the environment, about its acceptability. The production of almost any product involves the use of a certain variety of raw materials, energy resources, and technological solutions. They analyze alternatives, search for ways to possibly reduce adverse environmental impacts and, based on the results obtained, prepare recommendations. At the same stage, a critical review is needed to ensure the quality of the LCA being conducted. The critical review provides verification that

the methods used to conduct the LCA are in accordance with the requirements of the applicable standards;

the methods used to conduct an LCA are scientifically and technically justified;

the data used are adequate and consistent with the purpose of the study;

the interpretation reflects the limitations of the applied approaches and methods and the purpose of the study;

the study report is transparent and serves its purpose. The LCA recommendations are in turn used by managers and marketers.

logs to refine the company's strategy, improve the production process, develop and improve products. Sometimes the result of the "LCA" may be the conclusion that it is expedient to abandon the production of this type of product and replace it with another, often a revision of the functions or composition of the product , change of suppliers.

Let us formulate the practical applicability of LCA. First of all, it is a decision support method that helps an organization:

gain a better understanding of the environmental impacts, risks and possible responsibilities associated with a particular product or service;

improve the effectiveness of relationships with suppliers and consumers;

improve return on environmental investment;

identify key areas for improving products and the production process;

develop indicators that clearly reflect the possible impacts of products and services on the environment throughout the entire life cycle;

turn a wealth of product system data into information that can be used to evaluate company performance, analyze performance from an environmental and sustainability standpoint, and improve customer relationships.

What distinguishes LCA from other methods is the possibility of a global, conceptual, strategic view of the company's products in existing conditions.

Large companies implement LCA projects, which often result in environmental claims about the superiority of a particular type of product compared to competing products that perform similar functions. At the same time, research materials, approaches and methods used are transparent, that is, they are presented openly in a way that can be understood by stakeholders. Multinational corporations see LCA as a tool to influence the decision making of multiple suppliers and customers.

With the involvement of consulting firms, IBM collects and analyzes data on the consumption and use of resources by IBM suppliers. organic solvents, water-based paints, in all suppliers' production processes.

Small and medium-sized enterprises use LCA approaches rather than large-scale procedures, focusing on improving environmental performance, justifying the choice of raw materials or auxiliary materials, packaging, etc., using already known knowledge. As examples in this area, the transition to the use of economical light sources, the refusal to involve organochlorine solvents in the production cycle, the use of components that involve the return to the manufacturer after use for recycling are often cited.

The use of LCA for the purposes of labeling products has not yet found wide application, primarily due to the high labor intensity of the process. Usually, only separate LCA approaches are used in practice, and the boundaries of the system under consideration are rather narrow. Such approaches include the widespread labeling of food products as "organic" or "ecological", that is, those whose production process and the materials used in this meet the requirements of a certain standard (for example,). For more information on eco-labels, see section 7.4.

However, any tools have limitations, and it must be clearly understood that LCA approaches can only be applied with an understanding of these limitations, as they can influence the results of the assessment and decisions made on

its basis.

1. The possibility of choice and the assumptions made in LCA (the choice of system boundaries, data sources, impact categories, etc.) determine the subjective nature of the study, and, as you know, it is human to err.

2. The use of inventory analysis and impact assessment models is limited by the assumptions they make.

3. The implementation of the LCA is quite laborious and involves handling a large array of data describing the analyzed processes. Volume

of the data used increases the likelihood of errors in their collection, analysis, and interpretation.

4. The results of LCA studies that focus on global and regional issues may not be applicable at the local level, as local features may not be adequately represented on a regional or global scale.

5. The accuracy of an LCA is limited by the availability and adequacy of the data used, as well as their quality (averaging, gaps, different types of data, measurement errors, dimensional mismatch, local differences).

6. Shortcomings in considering spatial and temporal characteristics in the inventory description used for impact assessment lead to uncertainties in the assessment results. Uncertainty varies with the spatial and temporal characteristics of each impact category.

7. To compare results from different LCA studies, keep in mind

compatibility of the methodologies used for the assessment and be sure to take into account local and regional conditions that can significantly affect the results of the assessment.

Partially, these limitations are removed when conducting a critical analysis (analysis of the quality of the assessment), but in order to make serious decisions, it is necessary to use additional decision support methods.

From the point of view of the features characteristic of Russian conditions, it should be noted the problem of the availability of comprehensive and reliable data for compiling an inventory description. The experience of specialists shows that it is quite difficult, and in some cases even impossible, to isolate and add to a single format information, characterizing the costs of energy, substances, materials, water, etc. for each type of product, as well as the corresponding losses, emissions, discharges, waste. The cheapness of many resources, including water and energy, as well as gaps in the organization of production, have led to the fact that in the past they were in many cases insufficiently recorded, and the habit of keeping records of resources and related records was formed not so long ago. Even in cases where data were collected regularly over several years, the degree of averaging is large, and it is not possible to determine the share of resources spent on the production of a particular type of product, and even more so to clarify the contribution to environmental pollution.

Domestic enterprises are generally far from organizing work on LCA, but they are already successfully using its approaches in the practice of decision support.

At the enterprise of the electrical industry, the goal was set to gradually replace polyvinyl chloride (PVC) insulation with a material free from chlorine compounds (polyethylene) and using non-hazardous additives as flame retardants. The decision was the result of interaction with stakeholders (regional environmental authorities and public organizations). Research began with the assumption of the release of dioxins during the heat treatment of PVC at the enterprise. The assessment performed showed that the probability of the formation of harmful substances (including dioxin-like) in production is very

The study of fluctuations in the volume and duration of production of a particular product made it possible to establish that these indicators change over time cyclically, in regular and measurable intervals. In economics, the phenomenon of periodic fluctuations in the volume and duration of production and marketing of a product is called the life cycle of a product.

Product life cycle is the time the product has been on the market. The concept of the life cycle of a product comes from the fact that any product is sooner or later forced out of the market by another, more perfect or cheaper product. The life cycle of a product reflects changes in fashion, taste, style, technical progress, technical and obsolescence.

Depending on the specifics of certain types of goods, the characteristics of demand for them, there are various types of life cycle, differing both in duration and in the form of manifestation of individual phases: the traditional model includes distinct periods of introduction, growth, maturity, saturation and decline. The classic (boom) model describes an extremely popular product that sells steadily over time, the craze model describes a product that rises and falls in popularity quickly, and the lasting craze appears in the same way, except that "residual" sales continue at a rate of only a small part of the previous volume of sales. The seasonal pattern, or fashion pattern, occurs when a product sells well over periods spaced apart in time. The renewal or nostalgia model characterizes a product for which, after a certain time, demand is renewed. The failure model usually reveals the behavior of a product that has no market success at all. marketing product life cycle

The structure of the product life cycle is usually described by several phases. Their number varies from four to six in different authors. For example, a six-phase model can be interpreted as follows.

After graduation development and testing phases, in which the product brings only costs, it follows product launch on the market.. Its sales are growing slowly (trial purchases). Investments in the organization of production and marketing are large. Gradually, more and more consumers pay attention to the new product. If the product is successful, repeat purchases are added to the trials. IN growth phase the coverage area of ​​costs and profits is quickly reached. Next comes the transition to maturity phase. Sales are growing, but the growth rate is declining, the product brings the greatest profit. IN saturation phase sales growth stops, some increase in sales is possible due to population growth. Profit is also decreasing. IN decline phase the decrease in sales and profits is already unstoppable.

The current position of the product in the life cycle makes it necessary to develop marketing strategies that are most appropriate at a given moment in the cycle, and they, in turn, affect the effectiveness of the product at subsequent stages of the life cycle.

• 1 stage: Development of new products. At this stage, it is necessary to talk about the costs associated with a new product, about its profitability, and how these factors affect decision-making in the field of developing a new product. In this situation, the firm can follow two general strategic directions. The first involves the continuous introduction of new products with relatively modest market success. The introduction of such goods is based on the knowledge of their consumers and the technology required for production; the firm never strays far from its core capabilities and capabilities. The second strategic direction is to search for a fundamentally new product that changes the market and the company itself. Such an approach - a major success approach - often requires a significant mobilization of all resources and a relatively long development period. As a result, there may be an interruption of the main activity of the company. This may be accompanied by a change in market structure or even the creation of a new market. In addition, it is also possible to use a combined, so-called "hybrid" approach, in which the firm from time to time tries to introduce innovations that do not interrupt its main activities, while simultaneously using a number of measures to increase existing production. Such an approach would require even more resources than an approach designed for major success.
• 2 stage: Market launch stage. Market conquest takes time, so sales volumes grow, as a rule, at a slow pace. Profits at this stage are negative or low due to low sales and high distribution and promotion costs. A lot of funds are needed to attract distributors and create stocks. Promotion costs are relatively high because it is necessary to inform customers about a new product and let them try it. Since the market at this stage is usually not ready for product improvement, the company and few of its competitors release basic models of the product. These companies focus their sales on those buyers who are most ready to buy. These are innovative buyers (whose number is on average 2.5%). When a company enters the market with a product, its main task is to achieve recognition of the product not only by consumers, but also by wholesalers and retailers. Product recognition involves building a distribution network to make the product available to consumers and trying to convince consumers to try the product when it is on the market. To attract consumers, a product must have some sort of competitive advantage in terms of quality or cost.

When bringing a product to market, marketers should focus on:

involvement of the first consumers in the discussion of the design,

distinction between first and early users,

transfer of prototypes and first models of goods to the hands of the first consumers,

providing feedback to the first consumers,

accelerated development of further product models.

The involvement of the first consumers in this process makes it possible to use their recommendations regarding the design. In addition, it helps to get the opinion of the next group of early consumers. It is they who can tell the marketer what requirements the product should meet in a larger market.

• 3 stage: growth stage. If the new product is in demand, it moves to the growth stage, in which sales growth is sustainable and the product begins to make a profit. Early buyers keep buying, new buyers start to follow suit, especially if they hear good reviews. If a significant number of first-time buyers do not repurchase, the product will fail. At this time, the product begins to interest competitors. They enter the market attracted by the opportunity to make a profit. They give the product new properties and the market expands. At this stage, an attempt is made to maintain prices, but sometimes they have to be reduced due to pressure from competitors. The main task of the growth stage is to strengthen the position of the brand. Strategies at this stage are aimed at maintaining and using the competitive advantages gained at the previous stage. The goal for a product is to maintain its quality, but when competition intensifies, it may be necessary to add new features, improve packaging or improve service.
• 4 stage: maturity stage. At the stage of maturity, due to increased competition, sales growth begins to stop. The product attracts fewer and fewer new customers; Maintaining a product's position in the market depends on repeat purchases. More active behavior of competitors leads to increased price competition, lower prices and operating stocks. As a result, profits are reduced. The maturity stage usually lasts longer than other stages and presents marketing managers with serious problems. Most products are at the maturity stage of their life cycle, so most marketing managers have to deal with products at the maturity stage.

At the maturity stage of the life cycle, there may be, for example, such strategy options: market expansion, product modification, product repositioning.

Stage 5: Decline stage. It is characterized by a decrease in sales and profits, and then the occurrence of losses. The decline can be due to various reasons: obsolescence of the product due to advances in technology, lower costs sought by competitors, changing consumer preferences, ineffective attempts to revive sales. The decline stage is usually preceded by some technical innovation, causing most consumers to either stop using the product or opt for an alternative product. In this regard, market segments are shrinking, because. consumers switch to another product. Decisions made at this stage are usually aimed at reducing the product range and identifying ways to switch to other types of products. A company cannot sustain a brand in decline for long. Supporting a weak product can be too costly for a company, and not just in terms of profits. The worsened reputation of the product can cause doubts among buyers in the company as a whole and in other products. Supporting weak products delays finding replacements, creates a lopsided product mix, hurts current profits, and weakens the company's sustainability. The first task of the company is to identify products that have entered the decline stage through regular analysis of sales trends, market share, costs and profits. Management then has to decide for each product in decline whether to support it, "reap the last harvest," or give up on it.

UDK: 658 LBC: 30.6

Omelchenko I.N., Brom A.E.

MODERN APPROACHES TO LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT

PRODUCTS

Omelchenko I.N., Brom L.E.

SYSTEM OF AN ASSESSMENT OF LIFE CYCLE OF PRODUCTION

Key words: sustainable development, life cycle assessment, environmental impact, information module, inventory analysis, production chain.

Keywords: sustainable development, assessment of life cycle, ecological influence, information module, inventory analysis, productional chain.

Abstract: the article discusses a product life cycle assessment method that implements the concept of sustainable development of production, describes the basics of designing information modules based on LCA (assessment of the life cycle of products, including the assessment of processing processes, taking into account emissions into the environment), gives a scheme of the production chain for an industrial enterprise.

Abstract: in article the method of an assessment of life cycle ofproduction, realizing the concept of a sustainable development of production is considered. Bases of design of information modules on the basis of LCA are described. The scheme of a productional chain for the industrial enterprise is shown.

In connection with the constant deterioration of the ecological state of the planet and the depletion of natural resources, scientists began to think about assessing the impact of products at all stages of their life cycle on the environment. The concept of sustainable development combines three aspects: economic, environmental and social, and is a development model that achieves the satisfaction of the vital needs of the current generation of people without reducing this opportunity for future generations.

The concept of sustainable development is a continuation of the CALS concept, however, as a criterion, it uses not only the minimization of the life cycle cost (LC) of products (LCC method and tools, Life Cycle Cost), but the minimization of all resources used during the entire life cycle with an assessment

what is the impact of their processing processes on the environment (Figure 1).

To design information modules for assessing the impact of production processes and manufactured products on the environment, the LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) method is used, which has now begun to be actively implemented by Western enterprises. The premise behind this method was that the output of a production system is not only products, but also environmental impacts (see Figure 2). The LCA method (Product Impact-Based Life Cycle Assessment) is a systematic approach to assessing the environmental impacts of product manufacturing throughout its entire life cycle, from the extraction and processing of raw materials and materials to the disposal of individual components.

Energy - Water

Pollution Toxins

Figure 1 - Differences between the concepts of CALS and sustainable development

CALS concept: Expenditure of cost resources during the life cycle of products -» min

The concept of sustainable development: The consumption of resources* during the entire life cycle of products -» min Resources* = cost, raw materials, electricity, water, solid waste, emissions into the atmosphere

Omelchenko I.N., Brom A.E.

Raw materials

Water resources

Purchase of raw materials

Production

Use/Reuse/Service _service_

Production waste management

Products

Air emissions

Water pollution

solid waste

Products suitable for further use

Other environmental impacts

Figure 2 - Functional model of the production system in the LCA method

To implement the LCA methodology, the international standard ISO 140432000 “Environmental Management. Life cycle assessment. Life cycle interpretation.

Information systems designed in accordance with the LCA make it possible to assess the cumulative impact on the environment throughout all stages.

Table 1 - Main information and logistics systems

life cycle of products, which is not usually considered in traditional analyzes (for example, in the extraction of raw materials, the transportation of materials, the final disposal of products, etc.). Thus, the list of main information and logistics systems is currently being supplemented by LCA modules (Table 1).

Logistics technology Basic information and logistics systems

RP (Requirements / resource planning) - Planning of needs / resources MRP (Materials requirements planning) - Planning of requirements for materials

MRP II (Manufacturing resource planning) - Production resource planning

DRP (Distribution Requirements Planning) - Distribution Requirements Planning

DRP (Distribution Resource Planning) - Resource planning in distribution

OPT (Optimized Production Technology) - Optimized production technology

ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) - Enterprise resource planning

CSPR (Customer Synchronized Resource Planning) - A resource planning system synchronized with consumers.

SCM - Supply Chain Management) - ERP/CSRP Supply Chain Management (SCM Module)

CALS (Continuous Acquisition and Life Cycle Support) - Continuous information assessment of the life cycle of products ERP / CRM / SCM systems

PDM/PLM, CAD/CAM/CAE systems

Sustainable Development - The concept of sustainable development LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) - Evaluation of the life cycle of products LCC (Life Cycle Assessment) - Evaluation of the cost of the life cycle of products ERP (Environmental Impact Assessment Module)

The production chain is subject to analysis and assessment of inputs and outputs and environmental impacts - from the production of engineering products to the operation of the manufactured products and the disposal of production and consumption waste in the environment. The whole complex of complex relationships between production and the environment can be represented as a production chain (Figure 3). With this approach, from the point of view of environmental impact management, the product life cycle is a set of successive and interconnected stages of the production chain, and the availability of ERP class information systems becomes a necessary condition for the successful application of LCA.

The LCA is based on a methodology for assessing the environmental aspects and potential impacts of a product, process/service on the environment through:

Compiling a list of input (energy and material costs) and output (emissions to the environment) elements at each stage of the life cycle;

Assessments of potential environmental impacts associated with identified inputs and outputs

Interpret results to help managers make correct and informed decisions.

A complete analysis of the evaluation of the life cycle of LCA products (Figure 4) includes four separate but interrelated processes:

1. Determination of the purpose and scope of the analysis (Goal Definition and Scoping) - the definition and description of a product, production process or service. Creation of conditions for the assessment, determination of the boundaries of the analysis and environmental impacts.

2. Inventory analysis (Life

Cycle Inventory) - determination of quantitative characteristics of input parameters (energy, water, raw materials) and output parameters (emissions to the environment (for example, emissions into the atmosphere, disposal of solid waste, wastewater discharges)) for each stage of the life cycle of the object of study under consideration.

3. Assessment of impacts on the environment (Life Cycle Impact Assessment) - assessment of the potential for human and environmental consequences of the energy, water, raw materials and materials used, as well as emissions into the environment, identified in the inventory analysis.

4. Evaluation of results (Interpretation) - interpretation of the results of the analysis of the state of stocks and environmental impact assessment, in order to select the most preferred product, process or service.

Life Cycle Inventory Analysis (LCIA) is conducted for decision making within the manufacturing organization and includes data collection and calculation procedures to quantify the input and output data streams of a product system. Inputs and outputs may include resource use, emissions to air, releases to water and land associated with the system. The inventory analysis process is iterative. This analysis allows enterprises to:

Choose a criterion for determining the resource requirements necessary for the functioning of the system

Highlight certain components of the system that are aimed at the rational use of resources

Compare alternative materials, products, manufacturing processes

Product Life Cycle Assessment

Determining the purpose and scope for the analysis

inventory analysis

Environmental Impact Assessment \

Evaluation of results

Figure 4 - Main phases of LCA

An important step in an inventory analysis is the creation of a Process - Resource Flow chart, which will serve as a detailed blueprint for the data to be collected. Each step in the system should be charted, including steps for the production of ancillary products such as chemicals and packaging. Sequential in-

The ventilation analysis of each stage of the product life cycle clearly depicts the relative contribution of each subsystem to the entire production system of the final product. This happens on the basis of linking inventory data on environmental impacts to certain impact categories (Table 1).

Greenhouse effect Emissions of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide

Emissions of photooxidants Emissions of methane, formaldehyde, benzene, volatile organic compounds

Environmental acidification Emissions of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide

Consumption of natural resources Consumption of oil, natural gas, coal, sulfuric acid, iron, sand, water, timber, land resources, etc.

Toxic effects on humans Emissions of dust, carbon monoxide, arsenic, lead, cadmium, chromium, nickel, sulfur dioxide, benzene, dioxins

Waste generation Generation of domestic and industrial waste of various hazard classes, slag, sludge from treatment facilities

The contribution of a production system link to a particular category of impact V is calculated by summing the masses of emissions m, taking into account the corresponding eco-indicator I (each category of impact has its own environmental indicator; these indicators are determined for a specific region over a certain period of time based on basic emission standards) using the formula:

The results of the LCA method can be used to make decisions both at the level of individual enterprises (for example, when modeling production, ways of marketing products), and at the state level (for example, when making decisions to limit or prohibit the use of certain types of raw materials).

Omelchenko I.N., Brom A.E.

To implement the LCA method in Russia, it is necessary, first of all, to develop the possibilities and methods for exchanging environmentally relevant information. An important condition for the successful application of LCA on

enterprises should become the organization of information support for the assessment of the life cycle and support from environmental services.

REFERENCES

1. GOST R ISO 14043-2001

2. Environmental support of projects: textbook. allowance / Yu.V. Chizhikov. - M.: Publishing house of MSTU im. N.E. Bauman, 2010. - 308 p.

Bulletin of the Volga University named after V.N. Tatishchev №2 (21)