GOST R ISO 14040-99

GOSSTANDART OF RUSSIA

Moscow

Foreword

1. DEVELOPED by the All-Russian Research Institute of Standardization (VNIIstandart) and the All-Russian Research Institute of Classification. terminology and information on standardization and quality (VNIIKI)

INTRODUCED by the Scientific and Technical Department of the State Standard of Russia

2. ADOPTED AND INTRODUCED BY Decree of the State Standard of Russia dated February 22, 1999 No. 45

3. This standard is an authentic text of the international standard ISO 14040-97 "Management environment. Grade life cycle. Principles and tour»

4. INTRODUCED FOR THE FIRST TIME

5. RE-ISSUE

Introduction date 1999-07-01

Introduction

Importance of the issue of environmental protection and possible impacts associated with manufactured and consumed products 1 , increases interest in the development of methods aimed at reducing these impacts. One method being developed for this purpose is life cycle assessment (LCA). This International Standard provides the principles and structure of an LCA to support the study and reporting of an LCA, and some minimum method requirements.

The life cycle assessment method includes:

Taking inventory 2 relevant input and output streams of the product system;

Assessing the potential environmental impacts associated with these flows;

Interpretation of the results of the inventory analysis and the stages of impact assessment, depending on the purpose of the study.

This method evaluates the environmental aspects and potential impacts throughout the product life cycle (i.e. "cradle to grave") from the acquisition of raw materials to production, operation and disposal. The main categories of environmental impacts are resource use, human health and environmental impacts.

1 . Here, the term "product" also includes service systems.

2 . The inventory may cover environmental aspects that are not directly related to the inputs and outputs of the system.

The LCA method makes it possible to:

Improving the environmental aspects of products at various points in their life cycle;

Decision making in industrial, governmental or non-governmental organizations (for example, in strategic planning, prioritization, product or process design and redesign);

Selecting appropriate environmental performance indicators, including measurement methods;

Marketing (for example, when making an environmental claim related to an eco-labeling system or an environmentally friendly product declaration).

The LCA method is at an early stage of development. Some parts of the method, such as impact assessment, are still in their infancy, so there is a lot of work to be done and practical experience to be gained in order to move to the next level of practical application of the LCA method. Thus, it is important to correctly interpret and apply the results of an LCA accordingly.

For the successful application of the LCA method in understanding the environmental aspects of products, it is essential that it maintains its technical validity while at the same time being flexible, practical and cost-effective. This is especially important for small and medium enterprises.

The scope, scope, and level of detail of an LCA study depend on the object and intended use of the results. The depth and breadth of LCA studies depends on the purpose of the particular study. In all cases, however, the principles of structure established in this International Standard should be followed.

LCA is one of several environmental management techniques (eg risk assessment, environmental performance or environmental performance assessment, environmental auditing and environmental impact assessment) and is not applicable to all situations. As a general rule, LCA does not address the economic and social aspects of products.

The LCA method has the following limitations:

The nature of the choices and assumptions made in relation to an LCA (eg delineation of system boundaries, selection of information sources and categories of impacts) can be subjective;

Models used for inventory analysis or environmental impact assessment are limited by appropriate assumptions and may not be suitable for all potential impacts;

The results of LCA research focused on global and regional issues may not be suitable for local applications, i.e. local conditions may not be adequately represented by regional or global conditions;

The accuracy of LCA studies may be limited by the degree of availability of the necessary or lack of relevant information, its quality, for example, gaps, the types of information available, its grouping, averaging, specificity for a given location of an object;

The lack of spatial and temporal parameters in the inventory data used to assess impacts introduces uncertainty into impact outcomes. This uncertainty varies depending on the spatial and temporal characteristics of each impact category.

It should be noted that the information gained from the LCA study process should be used as part of a larger decision-making process and can be used to reach an overall compromise. Comparison of the results of different LCA studies is possible only when the assumptions and context of each study are the same. These assumptions should also be clearly articulated for the sake of transparency.

This International Standard contains the principles and structure for conducting LCA studies, as well as some methodological requirements for this process. For more information, see and related to the various stages of an LCA.

This Standard is not intended to create non-tariff barriers to trade, increase or change an organization's statutory obligations.

1 area of ​​use

This International Standard establishes the general framework, principles and requirements for conducting and reporting on life cycle assessment studies. The details of the life cycle assessment method are not covered here.

2. Regulatory references

The following standards contain provisions which, through reference in this text, constitute provisions of this standard. At the time of publication, the edition cited was current. Since all standards are subject to revision, it is recommended that the most recent edition of the standard indicated below be applied. Member countries of IEC and ISO maintain registers of currently valid International Standards.

Environmental management. Life cycle assessment. Determination of the purpose, research area and inventory analysis

Environmental management. Life cycle assessment. Life cycle impact assessment

Environmental management. Life cycle assessment. Life cycle interpretation

3 Definitions

For the purposes of this International Standard, the following definitions apply.

3.1 Distribution (allocation ) - separation of input or output flows of a single process in relation to the product system under study.

3.2. Comparative conclusion (comparative assertion ) - a conclusion characterizing the environmental efficiency (environmental friendliness) of various types of products of the same functional purpose.

3.3. elementary stream (elementary flow):

material or energy included in the system under study, which was removed from the environment without their prior transformation by a person, or

materials or energy leaving the system under study, which are released into the environment without their subsequent transformation by a person.

3.4. Environmental aspect (environmental aspect ) is an element of an organization's activities, products or services that can interact with the environment.

3.5. functional unit (functional unit ) is a quantitative characteristic of the product system used as a standard unit (measurement) in the study of LCA.

3.6. input stream (input ) - materials or energy that enter the unit process.

Note - Materials may include raw materials and products (components).

3.7. Interested party (interested party) - individual or group of individuals who interested in the environmental performance (environmental friendliness) of the product system or the results of the LCA.

3.8. Life cycle (life cycle ) - sequential or interrelated stages of the product system from the acquisition of raw materials or the development of natural resources to the disposal of products.

3.9. Life cycle assessment, LCA (life cycle assessment ) - collection and evaluation of input and output flows, as well as potential environmental impacts from - the product system at all stages of the product life cycle.

3.10. Life cycle impact assessment (life cycle impact assessment ) is the phase of the life cycle assessment aimed at understanding and evaluating the magnitude and significance of the potential environmental impacts of a product system.

3.11. Life cycle interpretation (life cycle interpretation ) - the phase of the life cycle assessment, in which the results of the inventory analysis or impact assessment, or both, are linked to the goal and scope in order to draw certain conclusions and make recommendations.

3.12 Life cycle inventory analysis (life cycle inventory analysis ) - the life cycle assessment phase, which includes the collection and quantification of inputs and outputs for a given product system at all stages of the product life cycle.

3.13 Output stream (output ) are the materials or energy that come out of a unit process.

Note - Materials may include raw materials, semi-finished products, finished products, emissions (discharges) and waste.

3.14. Practitioner (performer) (practitioner ) is the individual or group of individuals completing the LCA.

3.15. Production system (product system ) - a set of materially or energetically related unit processes that performs one or more specific functions.

Note - Here, the term "product" includes systems of services.

3.16. Raw material(raw material ) - primary or secondary material used to manufacture products.

3.17. System boundaries (system boundary ) is the relationship between a product system and the environment or other product systems.

3.18 Transparency(transparency ) - an open, adequate and understandable presentation of information.

3.19. Single process (unit process ) is the smallest part of the product system for which data is collected in the LCA process.

3.20. Waste(waste ) is any output stream from a production system that is removed.

4 Features and phases of an LCA

4.1. Features of LCA

The main salient features of the LCA methodology are as follows:

Research related to LCA should be systemic and appropriately focused on the environmental aspects of product systems from raw material acquisition to disposal;

The depth of detail and time frame of an LCA study can vary greatly depending on the intended purpose and scope;

The scope, assumptions, description of data quality, methods applied and results obtained from an LCA should be clear and transparent. In LCA studies, data sources should be discussed and documented;

Depending on the intended application of the LCA study, measures should be taken to preserve confidentiality and ownership of the information;

The LCA methodology should be receptive to incorporating new scientific results and technology improvements;

There are special requirements for LCA studies that are used for the comparative conclusion presented to the public;

There is no scientific basis for reducing LCA results to a single quantifier or number, as there are trade-offs and complexities at different stages in the life cycle of the product systems being analyzed;

There is no single method for conducting LCA studies. As stated in this International Standard, organizations should be flexible in their implementation of an LCA based on the specific application and user requirements.

4.2. Phases of an LCA

The life cycle assessment should include goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, impact assessment and interpretation of results, as illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1 – Phases of an LCA

5. Methodological structure

In addition to the general requirements set out below, this International Standard contains additional the requirement that the definition of a goal, areas of application, and inventory analysis should meet the requirements of the standard.

5.1 Determining purpose and scope

The purpose and scope of an LCA study should be clearly defined and consistent with the intended use.

5.1.1. Purpose of the study

The purpose of the research should clearly indicate the intended use, reasons in completion of the study and the intended recipient, i.e. who is expected to report the results of the study.

5.1.2. Scope of the study

In determining the scope of an LCA study, the following should be established:

The functions of the product system or, in the case of comparative studies, the functions of the systems under consideration;

functional unit;

The researched production system;

Product system boundaries;

Distribution procedures (input, output streams);

Impact types and impact assessment methodologies used, as well as subsequent interpretation;

data requirements;

Assumptions;

Restrictions;

Requirements for the quality of primary data;

The type of critical review, if any;

The type and form of reference required for the study.

The scope should guarantee compatibility, sufficiency of breadth, depth and detail of the study to achieve the goal.

LCA is an iterative method. Therefore, it may be necessary to modify the scope of the study as additional information becomes available along the way.

5.1.2.1. Function and functional unit of the system

The scope of an LCA study should clearly state the functions of the system under study. A functional unit is a measure of the characteristics of the functional output streams of a product system.

The main purpose of the functional unit is to provide a measurement standard for input and output flows. This unit is necessary to allow for comparability of LCA results. The comparability of LCA results is particularly important to ensure that there is a common basis for comparing different systems.

The system may have a number of possible functions depending on the circuits and the scope of the study. The functional unit associated with the scope must be defined and measurable.

Example : The functional unit for a coating system can be taken to be the surface area protected (coated) for a given period of time.

5.1.2.2. System boundaries

The system boundaries determine which unit processes should be included in the LCA.

The boundaries of the system are determined by several factors, including the intended use of the study, the assumptions made, preference criteria, data constraints, and the cost to the intended recipient (consumer of the results).

The choice of inputs and outputs, the level of aggregation within the data category, and system modeling should be consistent with the purpose of the study. The system must be modeled so that the input and output flows at its boundaries are elementary.

The criteria used in establishing system boundaries should be identified and justified in the scope of the study. As part of LCA studies used to make a comparative judgment presented to the public, analyzes of material and energy flows should be performed to determine whether they are included in the scope of the study.

5.1.2.3. Data quality requirements

Data quality requirements are determined by the characteristics of the data required for the study. These requirements should contribute, as appropriate, to the objectives and scope of the LCA study. Data quality requirements should include:

Time period covered;

Geographic conditions;

technological factors;

Correctness, completeness and representativeness of data;

Consistency and reproducibility of methods used in LCA;

Data sources and their representativeness;

Degree of information uncertainty.

Where a study is used for comparative purposes, the assertion made to the public should refer to the data quality requirements mentioned above.

5.1.2.4. System Comparison

In comparative studies, the equivalence of the systems being compared must be determined before results are interpreted. The comparison should use the same functional units and the same methodological aspects such as characteristics, system boundaries, data quality, allocation procedures, decision rules for estimating inputs and outputs and assessing impacts. Any differences between systems in these parameters should be identified and recorded.

For a comparative opinion to be presented to the public, the evaluation of the systems must be carried out in accordance with the critical review process (). Another requirement for a comparative opinion is that an impact assessment has been carried out.

5.1.2.5. Critical review

A critical review is a method for determining whether an LCA study meets the requirements of this International Standard in terms of methodology, data and reporting. The need for a critical review, who and how should conduct it, is determined by the scope of the study.

It should be noted that LCA Critical Reviews are optional and any of the review options listed in .

5.2 Life cycle inventory analysis

5.2.1. General Description of Life Cycle Inventory

Inventory analysis includes procedures for collecting and calculating data in order to quantify the relevant input and output data streams of a product system. Inputs and outputs may include resource use, emissions to air, releases to water and land associated with the system.

Depending on the objectives and scope of the LCA, these data can be used to interpret the results. These data also provide input for life cycle impact assessments.

The inventory analysis process is iterative. As data is collected and the system is explored, new system requirements or new constraints may be established, requiring changes in data collection procedures to achieve the purpose of the study. Occasionally, issues may arise that require a re-examination of the purpose or scope of the study.

5.2.2. Data collection and calculation procedures

Qualitative and quantitative data for inclusion in the inventory analysis should be collected for each unit process within the system boundary.

The procedures used to collect data may vary depending on the scope, unit process, or intended use of the study.

Data collection can be a resource intensive process. The scope should consider practical limitations on data collection and document them in the study report.

Some features of the calculations:

Allocation procedures are necessary when dealing with systems that include multi-component products (eg multi-component petroleum products). Material and energy flows and their associated releases to the environment must be linked to the various components of the product in accordance with clearly stated procedures, which must be documented and justified;

The calculation of the energy flow should take into account the various fuel and energy sources used, the conversion efficiency and distribution of the energy flow, the inputs and outputs associated with the production and use of this energy flow.

5.3. Life cycle impact assessment

The impact assessment phase of an LCA is aimed at assessing the significance of potential environmental impacts based on the results of a life cycle inventory analysis. Broadly speaking, this process involves linking inventory data to specific environmental impacts and trying to make sense of these impacts. The level of detail, the choice of impacts to be assessed and the methodologies used depend on the purpose and scope of the study.

This evaluation may include an iterative process of revisiting the purpose and scope of the LCA study to determine whether the objectives of the study have been achieved, or whether the purpose and scope should be changed if the assessment indicates that they cannot be achieved.

The impact assessment phase may include, among others, the following elements:

Linking inventory data to categories of impacts (classification);

Modeling inventory data within impact categories (characterization);

Possible aggregation of results in specific cases, if significant (determination by weighting).

Note - The data obtained before the weighing must be kept.

The methodology and scientific approach for impact assessment is still being developed. Impact category models are at various stages of development. There is no generally accepted methodology for consistently and accurately linking inventory data to specific potential environmental impacts.

There is subjectivity in the life cycle impact assessment phase, for example in the selection, modeling and evaluation of impact categories. Thus, to ensure that assumptions are clearly described and documented, transparency is critical to impact assessment.

5.4. Life cycle interpretation

Interpretation is the phase of LCA in which the results of the inventory data analysis and the impact assessment are linked, or only the results of the inventory data analysis according to the stated purpose and scope are linked to draw conclusions and recommendations.

The results of this interpretation should be in the form of conclusions and recommendations for decision makers, according to the purpose and scope of the study.

The interpretation phase may include an iterative process of examining and revising the scope of the LCA and the nature and quality of the data collected for the purpose.

The results of the interpretation should reflect the results of the "sensitivity analysis" performed.

While subsequent decisions and actions may include environmental factors identified as a result of the interpretation, they are outside the scope of an LCA study as they take into account other factors such as technical performance, economic and social aspects.

6. Reporting

The results of an LCA must be impartially, completely and accurately reported to the consumer. The type and form of the report should be determined when formulating the scope of the study.

Results, data, methods, assumptions and limitations should be transparent and presented in sufficient detail to enable the consumer to understand the complexities and trade-offs involved in an LCA study. The report should also allow the results to be used and interpreted in a way that is consistent with the objectives of the study.

If the results of an LCA are to be communicated to a third (interested) party that is not an authorized person or executor participating in the study, regardless of the form of communication, a reference report must be prepared for the third party with which there is communication.

The report should cover:

A) General aspects:
	authorized person for LCA, LCA implementer (internal or external);
	date of preparation of the report;
	a statement that the study was conducted in accordance withthe requirements of this standard;
b)definition of purpose and scope;
V)life cycle inventory analysis: collection procedures and data calculation;
G)assessment of impacts throughout the life cycle (methodology and results of the impact assessment carried out);
e)lifecycle interpretation:
	results;
	assumptions and limitations related to the interpretation of the results, and the methodology and data associated with them;
	data quality assessment.
e)critical review:
	name and status of persons performing the review;
	critical review reports;
	The methods used to conduct an LCA are scientifically and technically sound; The data used adequately correspond to the purpose of the study; Interpretations reflect identified limitations and the purpose of the study; The study report is transparent and serves its purpose. Since this International Standard does not specify requirements for the purposes or uses of an LCA, critical review cannot verify or validate either the purposes chosen for an LCA or the use cases for which the results of an LCA are applied. The scope and type of critical review required should be determined when formulating the scope of the LCA study. 7.2. The need for a critical review (expertise) The critical review should contribute to the understanding and credibility of LCA studies, for example when involving stakeholders. The use of LCA results for comparative judgments raises some questions and requires critical review (peer review), as this application is likely to affect stakeholders external to the LCA study. In order to reduce the likelihood of misunderstandings or negative impacts on external stakeholders, critical reviews of LCA studies should be conducted when results are used to support comparative conclusions. However, the mere fact that a critical review has been conducted should in no way be construed as support for any comparative conclusion based on the LCA study. 7.3. Critical review (examination) processes If an LCA study is subject to a critical review (peer review), the scope of the review should be defined. The scope of the review should state why the review is being undertaken, what level of detail it will cover, and who should be involved in the critical review process. Where appropriate, agreements to maintain the confidentiality of the content of the LCA should be indicated. 7.3.1. Review by internal expert A critical review can be done within the organization. In this case, it is performed by an internal expert independent of the LCA study. This expert should be familiar with the requirements of this International Standard and have the necessary scientific and technical experience. The conclusion of the review is prepared by the person conducting the LCA study and then reviewed by an internal independent expert. The conclusion of the review may also be prepared by an internal independent expert. The final part of the review should be included in the LCA study report. 7.3.2. Review by external expert Critical review (expertise) can be performed outside the organization. In this case, it is performed by an external expert independent of the LCA study. This expert should be familiar with the requirements of this International Standard and have scientific and technical experience. The conclusion of the review is prepared by the person conducting the LCA study and then reviewed by an external independent expert. The conclusion of the review may also be prepared by an external independent expert. The conclusion of the review, the comments of the implementer and any response to the recommendations made by the reviewer should be included in the LCA study report. 7.3.3. Stakeholder Review The study designee selects an external independent expert to chair the review panel. Based on the goals, scope, and financial resources allocated to the review, the supervisor selects other independent qualified individuals to participate in the review. The panel may include other interested parties, such as government agencies, non-governmental groups or competitors. The conclusion of the review and the panel's report, together with the expert's comments and any responses to the recommendations of the reviewers or panel members, should be included in the LCA study report. Keywords: environmental management, life cycle assessment, principles, structure.

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is an examination (list or inventory) of the resources used in the manufacture, use and disposal of products, and an assessment of their impact on the environment. LCA can also be applied to technologies. The first step is to determine the scope of the study. At this stage, the boundaries are established through which material resources and energy enter this cycle, and products and waste released into the air and water, as well as solid waste, leave this cycle. The study may cover the extraction of raw materials, production, transportation and use of products up to the point of disposal or recycling. Such an examination is quite specific and based on facts, and must be carried out in accordance with the standards ISO.

The second stage is the environmental impact assessment. The criteria used in the examination are objective, but it is difficult to assess this impact, since the impact thresholds for a number of reasons may be different in different places. We have already mentioned the example of reservoirs into which sewage is discharged, which can be very different - from a shallow river to an estuary.

Standards ISO on LCA were developed as part of an international collaboration coordinated by the Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) and the EU Commission (CES). The following standards have been released:

750 14040:1997 - LCA. Principles and foundations;

ISO 14041:1998 - LCA. Goals, scope definitions and status analysis;

ISO 14042:2000 - LCA. Life cycle impact assessment;

ISO 14043:2000 - LCA. The concept of the life cycle;

ISO/TS 14048:2000 - LCA. Data storage format;

ISO/TR 14049:2000 - LCA. Application examples ISO 14041 to goals, scope definitions and state analysis.

Life cycle assessment is useful for identifying and quantifying points in the life cycle where significant environmental impacts occur, as well as assessing the impact of life cycle changes (for example, replacing one technology with another). An example of an LCA is provided in a joint work of firms Tetra Pak, Stora Enso and the Swedish Forestry Industries Federation with an analysis of carton minimization and changes in printing technology, polymer extrusion coating, distribution, recovery and recycling systems, all of which reduced the environmental impact in the life cycle of a liter milk carton.

Conclusion

Current state problems of paper and cardboard are not caused by environmental considerations. Their secondary processing began to be used at least 100 years ago for technical and commercial reasons. In 2002, waste paper provided about 45% of the world demand for fiber semi-finished products. The amount of collected and recycled fiber is increasing for several reasons:

Increasing demand for fiber with increased production of paper and paperboard; increasing the collection of waste paper through increased public awareness and the introduction of waste management programs.

You can list the benefits of each of the three main sources of fiber:

1. Cellulose is a flexible fiber that allows for stronger products; after bleaching chemically pure pulp, its smell and taste become neutral, which allows it to be successfully used for packaging food products that are sensitive to taste and smell; processing aids are recovered and reused; the energy used in the production is renewable, as it comes from the non-cellulosic components of the wood.
2. Wood pulp is a rigid fiber that gives paper and cardboard bulk, that is, giving an increase in thickness for a given mass per unit area (g / m 2); this allows the production of more rigid products compared to products based on other fibers; provides a high yield of wood; they can be chemically treated for bleaching, have a sufficiently neutral odor and taste to allow packaging of many food products that are sensitive to taste and odors.
3. Recycled fiber has the necessary functional properties and is cost effective. Its quality depends on the original paper or cardboard. The use of recycled fibers in the manufacture of paper and paperboard is socially accepted and economical, but its environmental benefits have not been proven. It is believed that the main advantage in terms of ecology is the "preservation of forests" through recycling and waste disposal.

Another advantage is that recycled fibers retain the solar energy originally stored in it, and this energy is consumed in the production and use of virgin fibers. However, energy is consumed in the collection of waste and the delivery of waste paper to processing plants; in addition, proportionately more energy is required for the manufacture of secondary products. In the production of paper and board with recycled fiber, additional losses occur, and since equivalent recycled products have more fiber, proportionally more water must be evaporated during production. Since fossil fuels provide all this energy, emissions to the atmosphere are also proportionately larger.

These facts are not presented out of a desire to be polemical, but solely to contrast them with the notion that the use of recycled fiber is somehow better for the environment. In logistical terms, primary fibers are also necessary for recycling. It is difficult to replace virgin fiber with recycled one in a short time, and economic constraints and society's need for waste disposal will lead to an increase in the recovery and use of waste paper. This is important because the sustainability of resources depends on both environmental impacts and economic and social needs.

You can point to the specific advantages of different types of fibers and their combination in obtaining different types of paper and paperboard intended for different uses. Not all fibers are fully interchangeable, and therefore it is inappropriate to insist on a mandatory minimum level or content of recycled fiber.

Virgin fiber is required to meet the performance requirements of many industrial paper and paperboard applications. It is also necessary to maintain the quality of the recovered fibers and the total quantity required by the industry as a whole. Virgin fiber is also needed to replace (replenish) recycled fibers lost during reprocessing. Fibers cannot be regenerated indefinitely; in addition, processing reduces the length of the fibers and, ultimately, they remain in the sludge. Therefore, it can be argued that both primary and secondary fibers are necessary in practice.

Renewability of resources has been shown to depend on social, economic and environmental factors. Many point out that environmental disputes on certain issues such as the ratio of virgin and recycled fibers in products have already grown into debates characterized by a more systematic approach to environmental problems, namely:

• extraction of raw materials;
• using energy to make paper and board;
• production of packaging from them;
• compliance with air emissions, wastewater and solid waste standards at all stages;
• ensuring the needs of products in packaging at all stages of the life cycle - packaging, distribution, transportation, sale and use by the end user;
• disposal of packaging at the end of its life cycle with the possibility of its reuse, recycling, incineration with energy recovery or landfill.

The system as a whole must be environmentally, economically and socially sustainable, and must include processes to ensure its continual improvement. The foregoing confirms that it is this approach that is currently used in the production and use of packaging based on paper and cardboard.

Stocks of wood for the pulp and paper industry are renewable. Independent forest certification is carried out in many regions, including North America and Europe. More than 50% of the energy used in the pulp and paper industry comes from renewable sources. Enterprises that do not use biomass in their production process and plants that are supplied with electricity are in the same position from the point of view of society in terms of the resources used.

Currently, energy is obtained mainly from fossil fuels, but the share of renewable resources is constantly growing. Businesses have increased their energy efficiency through cogeneration (CHP) and reduced their emissions by switching from coal and oil to natural gas. Water consumption has also decreased, and the quality of wastewater has improved. The amount of recycled paper and paperboard, as well as the proportion of recycled fibers used in the production of paper and paperboard, has increased.

With its activities in all these areas and thanks to independent expertise for compliance with international environmental standards (ISO 14000, EMAS) and quality management (ISO 9000) firms involved in the production and use of paper and cardboard packaging continue to demonstrate their commitment to sustainability and continuous improvement.

Finally, an important characteristic of the pulp and paper industry, on which its claims of sustainability are based, is the role it plays in the global carbon cycle. The carbon cycle is the basis of the relationship between the atmosphere, sea and land (Fig. 2.5). All life on Earth depends on carbon in one form or another. Paper and cardboard are also included in this cycle because:

• atmospheric CO 2 is absorbed by the forest, and in the wood it turns into cellulose fibers;
• trees in their totality form forests;
• forests have a significant impact on climate, biodiversity, etc. by storing solar energy and CO 2 ;
• the main raw material for paper and cardboard is wood;
• non-cellulosic components of wood contribute more than 50% of the energy used to make paper and board, which leads to the fact that CO 2 is again returned to the atmosphere;
• part of paper and cardboard used for a long time (for example, books), as well as timber, act as a “carbon sink”, removing CO 2 from the atmosphere;
• when paper and cardboard are burned after use with energy recovery and when biodegraded in landfills, they release CO 2 into the atmosphere.

The paper industry is investing in forestry. This leads to the accumulation of new wood, and its volume significantly exceeds the volume of cut wood. In addition, the amount of CO 2 used to produce new wood exceeds the amount generated when biofuels are used in paper and board production, and at the end of their life cycle through energy recovery combustion or biodegradation.

Rice. 2.5. Carbolic (carbon) paper and board cycle

Thus, the pulp and paper industry effectively contributes to the development of forestry and removes CO 2 from the atmosphere, which serves the desired goal of ensuring the sustainable development of society.

UDK: 658 LBC: 30.6

Omelchenko I.N., Brom A.E.

MODERN APPROACHES TO LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT

PRODUCTS

Omelchenko I.N., Brom L.E.

SYSTEM OF AN ASSESSMENT OF LIFE CYCLE OF PRODUCTION

Key words: sustainable development, life cycle assessment, environmental impact, information module, inventory analysis, production chain.

Keywords: sustainable development, assessment of life cycle, ecological influence, information module, inventory analysis, productional chain.

Abstract: the article discusses a product life cycle assessment method that implements the concept of sustainable development of production, describes the basics of designing information modules based on LCA (assessment of the life cycle of products, including the assessment of processing processes, taking into account emissions into the environment), gives a scheme of the production chain for an industrial enterprise.

Abstract: in article the method of an assessment of life cycle ofproduction, realizing the concept of a sustainable development of production is considered. Bases of design of information modules on the basis of LCA are described. The scheme of a productional chain for the industrial enterprise is shown.

In connection with the constant deterioration of the ecological state of the planet and the depletion of natural resources, scientists began to think about assessing the impact of products at all stages of their life cycle on the environment. The concept of sustainable development combines three aspects: economic, environmental and social, and is a development model that achieves the satisfaction of the vital needs of the current generation of people without reducing this opportunity for future generations.

The concept of sustainable development is a continuation of the CALS concept, however, as a criterion, it uses not only the minimization of the life cycle cost (LC) of products (LCC method and tools, Life Cycle Cost), but the minimization of all resources used during the entire life cycle with an assessment

what is the impact of their processing processes on the environment (Figure 1).

To design information modules for assessing the impact of production processes and manufactured products on the environment, the LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) method is used, which has now begun to be actively implemented by Western enterprises. The premise behind this method was that the output of a production system is not only products, but also environmental impacts (see Figure 2). The LCA method (Product Impact-Based Life Cycle Assessment) is a systematic approach to assessing the environmental impacts of product manufacturing throughout its entire life cycle, from the extraction and processing of raw materials and materials to the disposal of individual components.

Energy - Water

Pollution Toxins

Figure 1 - Differences between the concepts of CALS and sustainable development

CALS concept: Expenditure of cost resources during the life cycle of products -» min

The concept of sustainable development: The consumption of resources* during the entire life cycle of products -» min Resources* = cost, raw materials, electricity, water, solid waste, emissions into the atmosphere

Omelchenko I.N., Brom A.E.

Raw materials

Water resources

Purchase of raw materials

Production

Use/Reuse/Service _service_

Production waste management

Products

Air emissions

Water pollution

solid waste

Products suitable for further use

Other environmental impacts

Figure 2 - Functional model of the production system in the LCA method

To implement the LCA methodology, the international standard ISO 140432000 “Environmental Management. Life cycle assessment. Life cycle interpretation.

Information systems designed in accordance with the LCA make it possible to assess the cumulative impact on the environment throughout all stages.

Table 1 - Main information and logistics systems

life cycle of products, which is not usually considered in traditional analyzes (for example, in the extraction of raw materials, the transportation of materials, the final disposal of products, etc.). Thus, the list of main information and logistics systems is currently being supplemented by LCA modules (Table 1).

Logistics technology Basic information and logistics systems

RP (Requirements / resource planning) - Planning of needs / resources MRP (Materials requirements planning) - Planning of requirements for materials

MRP II (Manufacturing resource planning) - Production resource planning

DRP (Distribution Requirements Planning) - Distribution Requirements Planning

DRP (Distribution Resource Planning) - Resource planning in distribution

OPT (Optimized Production Technology) - Optimized production technology

ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) - Enterprise resource planning

CSPR (Customer Synchronized Resource Planning) - A resource planning system synchronized with consumers.

SCM - Supply Chain Management) - ERP/CSRP Supply Chain Management (SCM Module)

CALS (Continuous Acquisition and Life Cycle Support) - Continuous information assessment of the life cycle of products ERP / CRM / SCM systems

PDM/PLM, CAD/CAM/CAE systems

Sustainable Development - The concept of sustainable development LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) - Evaluation of the life cycle of products LCC (Life Cycle Assessment) - Evaluation of the cost of the life cycle of products ERP (Environmental Impact Assessment Module)

The production chain is subject to analysis and assessment of inputs and outputs and environmental impacts - from the production of engineering products to the operation of the manufactured products and the disposal of production and consumption waste in the environment. The whole complex of complex relationships between production and the environment can be represented as a production chain (Figure 3). With this approach, from the point of view of environmental impact management, the product life cycle is a set of successive and interconnected stages of the production chain, and the availability of ERP class information systems becomes a necessary condition for the successful application of LCA.

The LCA is based on a methodology for assessing the environmental aspects and potential impacts of a product, process/service on the environment through:

Compiling a list of input (energy and material costs) and output (emissions to the environment) elements at each stage of the life cycle;

Assessments of potential environmental impacts associated with identified inputs and outputs

Interpret results to help managers make correct and informed decisions.

A complete analysis of the evaluation of the life cycle of LCA products (Figure 4) includes four separate but interrelated processes:

1. Determination of the purpose and scope of the analysis (Goal Definition and Scoping) - the definition and description of a product, production process or service. Creation of conditions for the assessment, determination of the boundaries of the analysis and environmental impacts.

2. Inventory analysis (Life

Cycle Inventory) - determination of quantitative characteristics of input parameters (energy, water, raw materials) and output parameters (emissions to the environment (for example, emissions into the atmosphere, disposal of solid waste, wastewater discharges)) for each stage of the life cycle of the object of study under consideration.

3. Assessment of impacts on the environment (Life Cycle Impact Assessment) - assessment of the potential for human and environmental consequences of the energy, water, raw materials and materials used, as well as emissions into the environment, identified in the inventory analysis.

4. Evaluation of results (Interpretation) - interpretation of the results of the analysis of the state of stocks and environmental impact assessment, in order to select the most preferred product, process or service.

Life Cycle Inventory Analysis (LCIA) is conducted for decision making within the manufacturing organization and includes data collection and calculation procedures to quantify the input and output data streams of a product system. Inputs and outputs may include resource use, emissions to air, releases to water and land associated with the system. The inventory analysis process is iterative. This analysis allows enterprises to:

Choose a criterion for determining the resource requirements necessary for the functioning of the system

Highlight certain components of the system that are aimed at the rational use of resources

Compare alternative materials, products, manufacturing processes

Product Life Cycle Assessment

Determining the purpose and scope for the analysis

inventory analysis

Environmental Impact Assessment \

Evaluation of results

Figure 4 - Main phases of LCA

An important step in an inventory analysis is the creation of a Process - Resource Flow chart, which will serve as a detailed blueprint for the data to be collected. Each step in the system should be charted, including steps for the production of ancillary products such as chemicals and packaging. Sequential in-

The ventilation analysis of each stage of the product life cycle clearly depicts the relative contribution of each subsystem to the entire production system of the final product. This happens on the basis of linking inventory data on environmental impacts to certain impact categories (Table 1).

Greenhouse effect Emissions of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide

Emissions of photooxidants Emissions of methane, formaldehyde, benzene, volatile organic compounds

Environmental acidification Emissions of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide

Consumption of natural resources Consumption of oil, natural gas, coal, sulfuric acid, iron, sand, water, timber, land resources, etc.

Toxic effects on humans Emissions of dust, carbon monoxide, arsenic, lead, cadmium, chromium, nickel, sulfur dioxide, benzene, dioxins

Waste generation Generation of domestic and industrial waste of various hazard classes, slag, sludge from treatment facilities

The contribution of a production system link to a particular category of impact V is calculated by summing the masses of emissions m, taking into account the corresponding eco-indicator I (each category of impact has its own environmental indicator; these indicators are determined for a specific region over a certain period of time based on basic emission standards) using the formula:

The results of the LCA method can be used to make decisions both at the level of individual enterprises (for example, when modeling production, ways of marketing products), and at the state level (for example, when making decisions to limit or prohibit the use of certain types of raw materials).

Omelchenko I.N., Brom A.E.

To implement the LCA method in Russia, it is necessary, first of all, to develop the possibilities and methods for exchanging environmentally relevant information. An important condition for the successful application of LCA on

enterprises should become the organization of information support for the assessment of the life cycle and support from environmental services.

REFERENCES

1. GOST R ISO 14043-2001

2. Environmental support of projects: textbook. allowance / Yu.V. Chizhikov. - M.: Publishing house of MSTU im. N.E. Bauman, 2010. - 308 p.

Bulletin of the Volga University named after V.N. Tatishchev №2 (21)

Ministry of General and Vocational Education

Russian Federation

St. Petersburg State University of Engineering and Economics

Essay

Assessment of the life cycle of the product "brick"

Performed:

3rd year student

group no. 4/871

Rakova Victoria Konstantinovna

1) Introduction (page 3-4)

2) Life cycle assessment (pp. 5-6)

Clay (page 6)

Chamber dryers (p. 7-8)

Tunnel dryers (p. 8)

Drying process (p. 8-9)

Firing process (p. 9-10)

Processing of raw materials for the production of bricks (pp. 10-11)

Preparation (page 11)

Shaping (pp. 11-12)

Drying (page 12)

Firing (p. 12-13)

Packaging (page 13)

Delivery (page 14)

3) Disposal (p. 15-16)

4) Conclusion (pp. 17-19)

Introduction

The product, once on the market, lives its own special commodity life, called in marketing the life cycle of the product. Different products have different life cycles. It can last from a few days to decades.

LIFE CYCLE OF THE PRODUCT (product life cycle)- the period of time from the development of a product to its removal from production and sale. In marketing and logistics, it is customary to consider the trace, the stages of the cycle: 1) origin (development, design, experiments, creation of an experimental batch, as well as production facilities); 2) growth - the initial stage (the appearance of a product on the market, the formation of demand, the final debugging of the design, taking into account the operation of an experimental series of the product); 3) maturity - the stage of serial production or mass production; the widest sale; 4) market saturation; 5) the fading of the sale and production of the product. From a commercial point of view, at the initial stages, expenses (expenditures on research, capital investments, etc.) prevail, in the future, incomes prevail, and finally, the growth of losses forces the production to be stopped.

The concept of the product life cycle describes the product's sales, profit, competitors and marketing strategy from the moment a product enters the market until it is withdrawn from the market. It was first published by Theodore Levitt in 1965. The concept proceeds from the fact that any product is sooner or later forced out of the market by another, more perfect or cheaper product. There is no permanent product!

The purpose of this work is to evaluate the life cycle of a brick.

This topic is relevant at the present time, since the life cycle of a product has great importance. Firstly, it directs managers to analyze the activities of the enterprise from the point of view of both present and future positions. Secondly, the product life cycle aims at carrying out systematic work on planning and developing new products. Thirdly, this topic helps to form a set of tasks and justify marketing strategies and activities at each stage of the life cycle, as well as determine the level of competitiveness of your product compared to the product of a competitive company. Studying the life cycle of a product is a mandatory task for an enterprise in order to effectively operate and promote a product on the market.

Life cycle assessment

Traditionally, bricks are made from clay, which is literally under our feet. Rain, snow, wind and solar heat - all this gradually destroys stones, turns them into small particles, from which clay is formed. Most often it can be found at the bottom of rivers and lakes.

When wet, the clay becomes soft and viscous. It is easy to give it the desired shape. But as soon as the clay dries, it hardens.

If you heat the clay at a high temperature (for example, at 450 ° C), its chemical composition will change, and it will no longer be possible to make it plastic again. Therefore, molded clay bars are fired in kilns at a temperature of 870 to 1200 °. It turns out a red brick.

Since ancient times, the method of making bricks has changed little. True, most of the work is now done by machines: they dig up the clay, crush it and sift it. Then it is mixed with water and the resulting well-mixed mass is forced through special nozzles with rectangular holes.

This is how bricks are formed. Soft blanks are dried in special rooms. Dry bricks are loaded into trolleys, on which they are sent to the Kiln.

A good durable brick must withstand pressure up to 350 kilograms per square centimeter. From such a brick, you can safely build the tallest house.

The organization of brick production must create conditions for two main parameters of production: to ensure a constant or average composition of clay and to ensure uniform operation of production. To identify the true causes of a large number of defects in production, an analysis of the compliance of the organization of production with these requirements is carried out.

Brick production belongs to those types of human activity, where the result is achieved only after lengthy experiments with drying and firing modes. This work must be carried out under constant basic production parameters. It is impossible to draw the right conclusions and correct the work if this simple rule is not observed.

It is impossible to produce high-quality products with a variable composition of clay and productivity. It is impossible to find the causes of marriage by reducing processing, not being able to control and regulate the mode of the dryer, not observing the firing mode in the kiln. How to understand where the source of marriage is: clay, mining, processing, molding, drying or firing?

The best clay is clay of constant composition, which can be provided at low cost only by bucket and bucket wheel excavators. Brick production requires a constant composition of clay over a long period of time for experimental selection of drying and firing modes. There is no easier or better way to get great quality products.

Clay

A good ceramic brick is made from clay mined with a fine fraction with a constant composition of minerals. With a constant composition of minerals, the color of the brick during production is the same, which characterizes the facing brick. Deposits with a homogeneous composition of minerals and a multi-meter layer of clay suitable for extraction with a single-bucket excavator are very rare and almost all have been developed.

Most of the deposits contain multi-layered clay, so bucket and wheel excavators are considered the best mechanisms capable of producing clay of medium composition during mining. When working, they cut the clay along the height of the face, crush it, and when mixed, an average composition is obtained. Other types of excavators do not mix clay, but extract it in lumps.

A constant or average composition of clay is necessary for the selection of constant modes of drying and firing. It is impossible to get a quality brick if the composition of the clay is constantly changing, since each composition needs its own drying and firing regime. When mining clay of medium composition, once selected modes make it possible to obtain high-quality bricks from a dryer and kiln for years.

The qualitative and quantitative composition of the deposit is clarified as a result of exploration of the deposit. Only exploration finds out the mineral composition, that is, what kind of silty loams, fusible clays, refractory clays, etc. are contained in the deposit. The best clays for brick production are those that do not require additives.

For the production of bricks, clay is always used, unsuitable for other ceramic products. Before a decision is made to build a plant on the basis of the deposit, industrial tests are carried out on the suitability of clay for the production of bricks. Tests are carried out according to a special standard methodology, which consists in the selection of technology for processing.

Tests provide answers to several questions: is there a layer of homogeneous clay in the deposit suitable for industrial development; if not, is the average composition of the clay suitable for making bricks; if not, what additives are required to obtain high-quality bricks, what equipment is needed for mining and processing equipment, etc.

Chamber dryers

Chamber dryers are fully loaded with bricks and the temperature and humidity gradually change in them throughout the entire volume of the dryer, in accordance with a given product drying curve. Dryers are used for products of electroceramics, porcelain, earthenware and for small volumes of production. It is very difficult to regulate the drying mode.

Tunnel dryers

Tunnel dryers are loaded gradually and evenly. Cars with bricks move through the dryer and pass sequentially through zones with different temperatures and humidity. Tunnel dryers work well only with raw materials of medium composition. They are used in the production of similar products of building ceramics. They “keep” the drying mode very well with a constant and uniform load of raw bricks.

Drying process

Clay, in terms of drying, is a mixture of minerals, consisting by weight of more than 50% of particles up to 0.01 mm. Fine clays include particles less than 0.2 microns, medium 0.2-0.5 microns and coarse-grained 0.5-2 microns. In the volume of raw brick there are many capillaries of complex configuration and different sizes, formed by clay particles during molding.

Clays give a mass with water, which, after drying, retains its shape, and after firing it acquires the properties of a stone. Plasticity is explained by the penetration of water between the planes of the crystal lattice of clay minerals. The properties of clay with water are important in the formation and drying of bricks, and the chemical composition determines the properties of products during firing and after firing.

The sensitivity of clay to drying depends on the percentage of "clay" and "sandy" particles. The more "clay" particles in the clay, the more difficult it is to remove water from the raw brick without cracking during drying and the greater the strength of the brick after firing. The suitability of clay for making bricks is determined by laboratory tests.

If at the beginning of the dryer a lot of water vapor forms in the raw material, then their pressure may exceed the tensile strength of the raw material and a crack will appear. Therefore, the temperature in the first zone of the dryer must be such that the water vapor pressure does not destroy the raw material. In the third zone of the dryer, the green strength is sufficient to increase the temperature and increase the drying rate.

The mode characteristics of drying products in factories depend on the properties of the raw materials and the configuration of the products. The drying modes existing at the plants cannot be considered as unchanged and optimal. The practice of many factories shows that the duration of drying can be significantly reduced by using the methods of accelerating the external and internal diffusion of moisture in products.

In addition, it is impossible not to take into account the properties of clay raw materials of a particular deposit. This is precisely the task of factory technologists. It is necessary to choose such a productivity of the brick molding line and the operating modes of the brick dryer, which ensure the high quality of the raw material at the maximum achievable productivity of the brick plant.

Process firing

Clay in terms of firing is a mixture of fusible and refractory minerals. During firing, low-melting minerals bind and partially dissolve refractory minerals. The structure and strength of the brick after firing is determined by the percentage of fusible and refractory minerals, the temperature and duration of firing.

In the process of firing ceramic bricks, low-melting minerals form glassy, ​​and refractory crystalline phases. With increasing temperature, more and more refractory minerals pass into the melt and the content of the glass phase increases. With an increase in the glass phase content, frost resistance increases and the strength of ceramic bricks decreases.

With an increase in the duration of firing, the diffusion process between the vitreous and crystalline phases increases. In places of diffusion, large mechanical stresses arise, since the coefficient of thermal expansion of refractory minerals is greater than the coefficient of thermal expansion of low-melting minerals, which leads to a sharp decrease in strength.

After firing at a temperature of 950-1050 °C, the proportion of the vitreous phase in the ceramic brick should be no more than 8-10%. During the firing process, such firing temperature regimes and firing duration are selected so that all these complex physical and chemical processes ensure maximum strength of ceramic bricks.

Processing of raw materials for the production of bricks

At the first stage, experienced geologists analyze the quality of raw materials. Then the extracted clay is placed in special storage rooms, where it is stored for about one year in an open state in order to achieve the optimum consistency. After that, the clay is collected again and sent to the nearest plant using a conveyor belt or trucks for further processing. Many companies spend a lot of time and money on the restoration of former clay mines. Territories where clay was previously mined are again becoming habitats for plants familiar to the area and a habitat for animals. Sometimes such areas are turned into recreational areas for local residents or used by agricultural enterprises or forestries.

Preparation

The second stage of the production of bricks begins with the collection of clay from special storages, where it has been stored for a year, and transportation to the departments of the feeding mechanism. Then the clay is crushed (mill) and ground (roller mill). Water and sand are added, and if hollow bricks are produced, sawdust is also added as an additional material to give the bricks the correct shape. All ingredients are kneaded to obtain the desired consistency. Then the clay is sent to the storage (warehouse of materials for the production of bricks) using the same conveyor belt, and then passed through the disk transfer mechanisms. After that, the clay is placed in a press machine. Technological progress makes it possible to use even poor quality clay that was previously discarded as leftover It should also be noted that the brick production process also uses renewable biogenic materials such as sunflower seed shells or straw, as well as recycled materials such as paper, all of which increase the level of product compatibility with the environment and reduce its cost. .

Shaping

This stage of the production of bricks involves giving the clay the necessary shape, in accordance with the size and shape of the bricks that should be obtained as a result of the whole process. The prepared clay is extruded through a mold using an extruder and then trimmed into individual bricks or mechanically compressed into molds using an automatic clay press. Soft unfired bricks are collected on special surfaces and sent to the dryer. Roof tiles made from clay are also extruded or pressed into special molds that allow you to get the roof tiles of the required shape and size. Some brick and tile companies also design and manufacture their own molds for the process. This allows you to create author's products that will have a unique shape, configuration, and also gives special optimized product characteristics.

Drying

The drying process removes unwanted moisture from the unfired bricks and prepares them for firing. Depending on the type of product and production technology, drying can take from 4 to 45 hours. During this process, the moisture content drops from 20% of the total brick weight to less than 2%. After drying, the bricks are automatically stacked for firing and placed in the kiln by special loading machines. Modern technologies for drying with air currents have significantly reduced the drying time of bricks. They also reduce energy consumption, improve product quality and enable the creation of new products that differ in shape and quality from traditional bricks.

Burning

The firing of bricks in the kiln tunnel at a temperature of 900 - 1200°C is the final part of the production process and lasts from 6 to 36 hours. This allows you to give the bricks the necessary strength. Cellulosic pulp and sawdust (mass forming materials for brick production) that have been added to green bricks during the preparatory process burn completely and leave small holes, which improves the thermal insulation qualities of the product. Facing bricks and roof tiles can also be produced with a ceramic surface (angobed or glazed) which is applied at high temperatures and gives the surface of the bricks an attractive appearance. After firing, the bricks become permanently fireproof and refractory. Specially designed kilns using innovative technologies and modern firing technologies have made it possible to significantly reduce the firing time by two-thirds. This gives undeniable advantages to everything technological process: 50% reduction in energy consumption from primary sources over the past ten years; reduced emissions by 90% thanks to equipment for the processing of residual combustion products; improved product quality and output.

Package

After firing, the bricks are automatically immersed on special surfaces and packed with film and spacers. This type of packaging allows the bricks to be identified and ensures the safe delivery of products to the customer. The use of a thin film made from recycled polyester fiber, as well as the extended life of the brick transport surfaces, significantly reduces the consumption of materials for product packaging.

Delivery

Most brick factories are located near railway stations. This circumstance makes it possible to arrange the shipment of finished products by both road and rail transport. There is even more exotic for our latitudes - water transport - however, for all its cheapness, not all routes can run near river highways. Although when supplying high quality bricks over long distances, sometimes multi-stage logistics schemes are built, in which water transportation significantly reduces the share of transport costs.

Brick recycling

As a rule, the disposal of the above product is associated with serious organizational and economic difficulties.

To improve the environmental situation, a very important role is played by the disposal of waste of any nature. Garbage appears constantly both in everyday life of a person and in industrial production. Many today are already aware of the need for careful and thorough waste disposal using methods aimed at working with each specific type of waste separately.

Depending on the type and hazard class of waste, its disposal may require the use of specialized methods. So, some waste is taken to special landfills and buried, while others are burned in chambers at high temperatures. However, there are also more toxic wastes that belong to the category of especially hazardous waste - they can be treated with specialized cleaning agents. Also, waste disposal implies the possibility of recycling some types of waste (for example, metal, waste paper, broken bricks, reinforced concrete products, etc.).

Construction waste: brick, screed, concrete, tile, obtained during the dismantling of construction objects after processing, are converted into building rubble of secondary origin in accordance with GOST 25137-82.

The economic efficiency of the reuse of these resources makes it possible to reduce the cost of the finished secondary product by 2-3 times, and in the future it may even make it possible to reduce the cost of construction of one square meter. meters of the building.

The main stages of construction waste processing are:

processing of raw material into crushed stone in a crusher;

extraction of metal inclusions;

· fractionation (sorting) of crushed stone on a screen.

The design of the complex provides for the possibility of dismantling and transporting it in separate parts. Installation does not require complex foundations and pits.

Installation diagram. Construction waste disposal.

Conclusion

Thus, in conclusion, we can say that for each product, the company must develop a strategy for its life cycle. Each product has its own life cycle with its own specific set of problems and opportunities. Establishing strategic planning based on the product life cycle is essential for a company's sustainable long-term growth. The ability to create the necessary base for goods in time is the same as paving the way for a dense traffic flow so that there is no stop and delay, and, consequently, losses, maybe even bankrupts. The ability to operate with sales promotion tools, combined with a reasonable placement of goods on the market, leads to the best of results - the birth of a new success.

Many managers focus on the fact that the product is too good to not find demand even with little advertising, or, especially when the product is at the stage of maturity, they prefer to "sit back" and reap the benefits of success without thinking at all about that beyond the close threshold of success awaits them a decline that will surely come.

To prevent such unfavorable situations, all self-respecting firms put up with the fact that it is necessary to think about the death of even an unborn product. Such organizations have a long-term good prospect, because they understand that missing at least one stage of the product, without replenishing it with the development, or putting another one on the market, would not be harmonious. When starting to put a new product on the market, it is necessary to immediately start forecasting a new product (modification or completely different) with the intention of having a “secured old age” for the first product. It is best to have eight of these products, in which case the company will really gain a reputation for itself, a place in the market and will constantly receive large profits and compliments.

There are cases when managers do not take into account the life cycle of a product, which most often leads to ruin. Such firms are often referred to as "fly-by-nights", which fully describes their "success".

Obviously, the housing of the XXI century. should be built from environmentally friendly, affordable materials, and today nothing prevents the designer from planning their use, except for the inertia of thinking, the lack of information and standards, examinations, and in some cases, certificates. When considering the use of a particular material, three groups of parameters related to energy intensity, ecology, and life cycle must be taken into account. Energy intensity is understood as a set of energy costs for the production, transportation, laying, operation during the life cycle of a particular material.

At the same time, it is important to know whether materials are renewable and whether renewable energy sources are used for their production (for example, wood is a renewable material, but fired brick is not), whether there are alternative materials with lower energy consumption and energy intensity. The environmental friendliness of a material is understood as a set of answers to the questions: is the material itself or its emissions harmful to health, does it require coating and how harmful is it, are the waste products of production, construction and operation of the material, how environmentally friendly and economical are the technologies for recycling the material and its waste? whether the material is categorized as local. The life cycle includes the service life of the material (estimated by the criterion of equal wear in the structure), its maintainability and interchangeability, the possibility of reuse and / or harmless cheap disposal. By bringing these principles together, Western civilization came to the concept of an energy-passive eco-house.

The era of large-sized, familiar to us bricks began quite recently, a little more than 400 years ago. For many years, the production of bricks was at the mercy of the monasteries. The industrious and pious brethren produced bricks of amazing quality. The production went primarily to the needs of the monastery courtyard, the construction of new churches. Some of the bricks were sold to wealthy laity.

Clay brick "natural" - it is inert and breathes. The bricks are made from clay and slate, so they do not have any emissions or changing organic components, unlike synthetic materials that can pollute the air.

Energy costs- is the energy costs required for the development of the deposit, production and transportation of the material. Brick is sometimes referred to as a material with a high energy cost, however, it is necessary to evaluate all the costs in the life cycle of materials in order to give an accurate estimate, and not just look at the costs of manufacture.

For maximum use and stacking, the bricks should be small and light enough that the bricklayer can lift the brick with one hand (while leaving the other hand free for the paddle). Bricks are usually laid flat to achieve the optimal width of the brick, which is measured by the distance between the thumb and the rest of the fingers of one hand. Usually this distance is within 100 mm. In most cases, the length of a brick is twice its width, i.e. about 200 mm, or a little more. Thus, it is possible to use such a masonry method as, for example, dressing. This structure of brickwork increases the stability and strength of structures.

This topic is especially relevant in modern times, since the life cycle of products is of great importance. Firstly, it directs managers to analyze the activities of the enterprise from the point of view of both present and future positions. Secondly, the product life cycle aims at carrying out systematic work on planning and developing new products. Thirdly, this topic helps to form a set of tasks and justify marketing strategies and activities at each stage of the life cycle.

Share work on social networks

If this work does not suit you, there is a list of similar works at the bottom of the page. You can also use the search button

Other related works that may interest you.vshm>
16487.		INTEGRATED LOGISTICS SUPPORT OF THE LIFE CYCLE OF SCIENCE-INTENSIVE PRODUCTS	80.35KB
	The definition of the ILS definition in Western terminology is associated with a significant change in the requirements for the reliability of complex equipment: for a complex NP that needs repair maintenance and has a long service life, the costs arising during the operation phase, as a rule, are several times higher than the costs of purchasing the product. Therefore, the creation and implementation of ILS systems was primarily associated with the support of the life cycle of complex equipment objects at the operational stage, and their main tasks are to prevent unjustified...
2189.		The concept of software life cycle	185.18KB
	ISO 12207 Software Life Cycle Processes Core Processes Supporting Processes Organizational Processes Customization Software Acquisition; Transfer of software for use; Software development; Operation of the software; Software support Documentation; Configuration management; Quality assurance; Verification; Validation; Joint expertise; Audit; Problem resolution Project management; infrastructure management; Process improvement; Personnel management Adaptation of the processes described by the standard to the needs of a particular project Processes are built from ...
356.		Basic life cycle processes	11.91KB
	Basic Life Cycle Processes Acquisition The acquisition process as it is called in GOST âorderâ defines the work and tasks of the customer acquiring software or services related to software on the basis of a contractual relationship. The acquisition process consists of the following works The titles of GOST 12207 are given in parentheses if another translation of the original standard's work titles is proposed:
358.		Definitions of hardware and software and its life cycle	28.92KB
	There is a general agreement on the allocation of four generalized phases of the life cycle in parentheses are alternative terms used in various sources: concept initiation identification selection definition analysis execution practical implementation or implementation production and deployment design or construction commissioning installation testing, etc. Model or paradigm of the life cycle defines a conceptual view of the life cycle organization and often the main phases of the life cycle and ...
16247.		Strategic choice of a company taking into account the stage of its life cycle	26.41KB
	In a market economy, acting on the market as an independent business entity, companies must have a certain stability of functioning and development. Given the difficult economic situation caused by the global financial crisis, the stability of the functioning and development of the company is of great importance. With this information about the development of the company, the manager has the opportunity to predict various crisis phenomena that ...
357.		Models of the life cycle of hardware and software (HPS), their advantages and disadvantages	192.04KB
	Life Cycle Models The following life cycle models are most often spoken of: Cascading waterfall or sequential Iterative and incremental evolutionary hybrid mixed Spiral spirl or Boehm model It is easy to see that at different times and in different sources a different list of models and their interpretation is given. For example, earlier the incremental model was understood as building a system in the form of a sequence of release builds determined in accordance with a pre-prepared plan and already specified ...
11702.		THE SPECIFICITY OF HR MANAGEMENT AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF THE ORGANIZATION'S LIFE CYCLE	240.15KB
	To study the views of various authors on the theory of personnel management and organization life cycles; Analyze in detail the specifics of management activities at each stage; To analyze personnel management at the present stage of CJSC "OBD"; Suggest ways to improve the personnel management system in CJSC "OBD".
5512.		Product cost analysis	30.57KB
	The calculation of this indicator is necessary for many reasons, including determining the profitability of certain types of products and production as a whole, determining wholesale prices for products, implementing intra-production cost accounting, and calculating national income nationwide.
17941.		Accounting and analysis of product sales	663.61KB
	Analytical accounting of the sale of goods, works, services. Synthetic accounting for the sale of goods, works, services. Organization of accounting for the sale of goods at the enterprise. Synthetic and analytical accounting for the sale of goods at the enterprise ...
20573.		Calculation and analysis of production costs	228.33KB
	The cost price is the financial costs of the enterprise aimed at servicing the current expenses for the production and sale of goods and services. Cost includes materials, overheads, energy, wages, depreciation, etc. According to the current legislation of the Russian Federation, the cost is taken into account when determining taxable income.