Don’t know what address to choose when meeting a new person, or do you want to understand when you can switch to “you” in communication? The rules of speech etiquette will come to the rescue, explaining when and what kind of address is more appropriate to use.

The reforms of Peter 1 introduced into our speech the use of “You,” which he borrowed from European culture. The innovation that came from the West took a long time to take root, but now we don’t even remember that it has non-Russian roots.

Forms "You" and "you"

Having studied the basics of speech etiquette, you can get precise recommendations on the use of addresses “you” or “you”.

When it is necessary to address the interlocutor as “you”

The use of “you” emphasizes formality and respect for the interlocutor, and is regulated by specific rules of etiquette.

1. If you need to contact someone you barely know or a complete stranger, for example: “Could you tell me if I filled out the application correctly?”
2. If the interlocutor is familiar to you, but he is older than you. In this case, it is useful to know a few additional conditions. It is more appropriate to supplement the address with a first name and patronymic to those interlocutors who are over 25 years old: “Fedor Petrovich, you understand how important this is for me!” And if your partner is younger, then we add only the name: “Fedor, you know how I would like to solve this problem!”
3. The formality of the situation, which requires building communication at work on a “you” basis. We list the main situations in which this etiquette requirement must be observed:

• communication with colleagues, even if informal relationships have developed between them, in the presence of third parties, including when participating in meetings, symposiums, round tables and seminars;
• during the interaction between buyer and seller, doctor and patient, driver and passenger;
• in the work of a teacher or teacher when addressing middle and high school students and students.

When to Capitalize When Addressing “You” in Writing

We will separately outline the rules that apply when using “you” in written speech. Even if a conversational style is chosen, etiquette requires addressing recipients as “you,” thereby emphasizing respect for them. But if neither the number of people who will read the text nor their names and surnames are known, then in this case we will write the appeal in small letters. An example is any address by the author to the reader in an article. If the addressee is known, then using a capital letter is mandatory, for example, when writing a letter to a specific person.

When can I address you as "you"?

“You” is a colloquial form of address to well-known people, indicating the presence of a close relationship, although if it is used in relation to a stranger, it will be perceived either as disrespect for him or as bad manners of the addressee and a gross violation of etiquette requirements.

“You” can be addressed to a colleague, friend, children and is regulated by the rules of speech etiquette in the following cases:

1. Appeal in the family to relatives and household members, regardless of their age. Today, the tradition of children addressing their parents as “you” has almost been lost.
2. An informal setting in which colleagues and co-workers can afford to use the colloquial “you”.
3. Appeal to children under 9 years of age.
4. friends, colleagues, acquaintances or peers.

Transition from “you” to “you” and from “you” to “you”

Speech etiquette helps to find answers to questions about how in the process of communication it is possible to replace the address “You” with its colloquial version “you”.

Rules for switching from “you” to “you”

Most often, this is possible when the situation allows you to switch to an informal form of communication. The main requirement in such a transition is to obtain permission from the interlocutor to use “you” as a less formal option.

Basic rules for the transition from “you” to “you”, regulated by speech etiquette:

• The proposal to switch to “you” must come from the older interlocutor to the younger one, who receives the right to accept or reject such an offer.
• In communication between a man and a woman, etiquette prescribes that it is the woman who is the first to suggest a transition to “you” to her interlocutor. This rule is not always followed, but this does not mean that it does not exist.

When is it possible to switch from “you” to “you”

A reverse transition means that the interlocutors’ communication conditions have changed. For example:

• Communication partners' relationships have deteriorated, and now they need to emphasize the formality of communication.
• When relatives come to work, they change “you” to “you”, thereby trying to demonstrate to their colleagues the lack of close relationships.
• People who know each other well find themselves in a situation or meeting, or at work, in relation to each other, they are employees who are not equal in status, but, for example, a manager and a subordinate. Among colleagues, addressing themselves as “you”, they show the ability to separate friendly and work relationships.

Knowing the rules of speech etiquette and following them, each person will be able to improve their interaction with others and not find themselves in situations in which they will be considered ignorant or insufficiently educated.

: I propose: speech etiquette in the Russian Empire of the early twentieth century in everyday life and in the army. From janitor to emperor.We read books, watch movies and TV series, go to theaters... We encounter “your excellency” and “your excellency.” However, clear canons regulating the norms of circulation in detail are difficult to find, and those works that exist are fragmentary and of little use. How's the dark?

The word “etiquette” was introduced into use by the French king Louis XIV in the 17th century. At one of the magnificent receptions of this monarch, the invitees were given cards with rules of behavior that guests must observe. From the French name for cards - “labels” - the concept of “etiquette” comes from - good manners, good manners, ability to behave in society. At the courts of European monarchs, court etiquette was strictly observed, the implementation of which required both the august persons and those around them to comply with strictly regulated rules and norms of behavior, sometimes reaching the point of absurdity. For example, the Spanish king Philip III preferred to burn in front of his fireplace (his lace caught fire) than to put out the fire himself (the person responsible for the court fire ceremony was absent).

Speech etiquette– “nationally specific rules of speech behavior, implemented in a system of stable formulas and expressions in situations of “polite” contact with an interlocutor accepted and prescribed by society. Such situations are: addressing the interlocutor and attracting his attention, greeting, introduction, farewell, apology, gratitude, etc.” (Russian language. Encyclopedia).

Thus, speech etiquette represents the norms of people’s social adaptation to each other; it is designed to help organize effective interaction, restrain aggression (both one’s own and that of others), and serve as a means of creating an image of “one’s own” in a given culture, in a given situation.

Speech etiquette in the narrow sense of understanding this term is used in etiquette communication situations when performing certain etiquette actions. These actions can have the meaning of motivation (request, advice, proposal, command, order, demand), reaction (reactive speech acts: agreement, disagreement, objection, refusal, permission), social contact in the conditions of establishing contact (apology, gratitude, congratulations) , its continuation and completion.

Accordingly, the main etiquette genres are: greeting, farewell, apology, gratitude, congratulations, request, consolation, refusal, objection... Speech etiquette extends to oral and written communication.

Moreover, each speech genre of speech etiquette is characterized by a wealth of synonymous formulas, the choice of which is determined by the sphere of communication, the characteristics of the communicative situation and the nature of the relationship between the communicators. For example, in a greeting situation: Hello! Good morning! Good afternoon Good evening! (Very) glad to welcome (see) you! Let me welcome you! Welcome! My regards! Hello! What a meeting! What a meeting! Who do I see! and etc.

Thus, greeting helps not only to perform the appropriate etiquette speech action when meeting, but also to set a certain frame of communication, to signal official ( Let me welcome you!) or unofficial ( Hello! What a meeting!) relationships, set a certain tone, for example, humorous, if the young man answers the greeting: My regards! etc. The rest of the label formulas are similarly distributed according to their scope of use.

Addressing (orally or in writing) to persons with ranks was strictly regulated and was called a title. All slaves should have known these sweet words as “OUR FATHER.” OTHERWISE THERE COULD BE BIG TROUBLES!!!

Subjects of the Russian sovereign were certainly punished for registering the royal title. And also the punishment depended on the seriousness of the offense. Punishment on this issue was the prerogative of the highest authority. The measure of punishment was fixed either in the royal decree or in the royal decree with a boyar sentence. The most common punishments were whipping or whipping, and short term imprisonment. Not only the fact of distorting the title of the Russian sovereign, but also the application of one or more of its formulas to a person who did not have royal dignity was subject to inevitable punishment. Even in an allegorical sense, subjects of the Moscow sovereign were forbidden to use the words “tsar”, “majesty”, etc. in relation to each other. If such a fact occurred, it served as a reason for starting a search operation and was placed under the control of the highest authority. An indicative example is the “Tsar’s personal decree “On cutting the tongue of Pronka Kozulin, if the search turns out that he called Demka Prokofiev the king of Ivashka Tatariinov.” It can be said that during the period under review, an attack on the royal title was actually equated with an attack on the sovereign.

Noble etiquette.

The following title formulas were used: respectful and official address was “Dear sir, dear madam.” This is how they addressed strangers, either during a sudden cooling or aggravation of relations. In addition, all official documents began with such appeals.

Then the first syllable was dropped and the words appeared "sir, madam". This is how they began to address wealthy and educated people, usually strangers.

In the official environment (civilian and military), the following rules of address existed: the junior in rank and title was required to address the senior in title - from “Your Honor” to “Your Excellency”; to persons of the royal family - “Your Highness” and “Your Majesty”; the emperor and his wife were addressed as “Your Imperial Majesty”; Grand Dukes (close relatives of the Emperor and his wife) were titled “Imperial Highness.”

Often the adjective “imperial” was omitted, and when communicating, only the words “Majesty” and “Highness” were used (“To His Majesty with an errand ...”).

Princes who did not belong to the reigning house, and counts with their wives and unmarried daughters, were titled “Your Excellency”, the most serene princes - “Your Grace”.

Higher-ranking officials addressed their subordinates with the word “Mr.,” with the addition of their surname or rank (position). People equal in title addressed each other without a title formula (for example, “Listen, Count...”).

Common people, who did not know ranks and insignia, used such addresses as master, mistress, father, mother, sir, madam, and for girls - young lady. And the most respectful form of addressing a master, regardless of his rank, was “Your Honor.”

Military etiquette. The system of appeals corresponded to the system of military ranks. Full generals are supposed to say Your Excellency, lieutenant generals and major generals - Your Excellency. Officers, sub-ensigns and candidates for a class position are called superiors and senior staff and chief officers by rank, adding the word Mr., for example, Mr. Captain, Mr. Colonel, other lower ranks title staff officers and captains - Your Highness, other chief officers - Your Honor (those with a count or princely title - Your Excellency).

Departmental etiquette used largely the same system of addresses as the military one.

In the Russian state in the XVI - XVII centuries there was a practice of maintaining “ranks” - rank books, in which records were annually made of appointments of service people to senior military and government positions and of royal commissions to individual officials.

The first discharge book was compiled in 1556 under Ivan the Terrible and covered all appointments for 80 years from 1475 (starting from the reign of Ivan III). The book was kept in the Discharge Order. In parallel, the order of the Grand Palace kept a book of “palace ranks”, in which “everyday records” were entered about appointments and assignments in the court services of serving people. Rank books were abolished under Peter I, who introduced a unified system of ranks, enshrined in the Table of Ranks of 1722.

“Table of ranks of all military, civil and court ranks”- law on the procedure for civil service in the Russian Empire (ratio of ranks by seniority, sequence of ranks). Approved on January 24 (February 4), 1722 by Emperor Peter I, it existed with numerous changes until the 1917 revolution.

Quote: “Table of ranks of all ranks, military, civil and courtiers, who are in which rank; and who are in the same class"- Peter I January 24, 1722

The Table of Ranks established the ranks of 14 classes, each of which corresponded to a specific position in the military, naval, civil or court service.

In russian language term "rank" means degree of distinction, rank, rank, rank, category, class. By decree of the Soviet government of December 16, 1917, all ranks, class ranks and titles were abolished. Nowadays, the term “rank” has been preserved in the Russian Navy (captain of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd rank), in the hierarchy of diplomats and employees of a number of other departments.

When addressing persons who had certain ranks of the “Table of Ranks,” persons of equal or lower rank were required to use the following titles (depending on the class):

“YOUR EXCELLENCY” - to persons in the ranks of 1st and 2nd classes;

“YOUR EXCELLENCY” - to persons in the ranks of 3 and 4 classes;

“YOUR HIGHNESS” - to persons in the ranks of 5th class;

“YOUR HONOR” - to persons in the ranks of grades 6–8;

“YOUR NOBILITY” - to persons in the ranks of grades 9–14.

In addition, in Russia there were titles used when addressing members of the Imperial House of Romanov and persons of noble origin:

"YOUR IMPERIAL MAJESTY" - to the Emperor, Empress and Empress Dowager;

“YOUR IMPERIAL HIGHNESS” - to the grand dukes (the children and grandchildren of the emperor, and in 1797–1886, the great-grandsons and great-great-grandchildren of the emperor);

"YOUR HIGHness" - to the princes of the imperial blood;

“YOUR HIGHNESS” - to the younger children of the emperor’s great-grandsons and their male descendants, as well as to the most serene princes by grant;

“YOUR LORD” - to princes, counts, dukes and barons;

“YOUR NOBILITY” - to all other nobles.

When addressing clergy in Russia, the following titles were used:

“YOUR EMPLOYMENT” - to metropolitans and archbishops;

“YOUR Eminence” - to the bishops;

“YOUR REVERENCE” - to archimandrites and abbots of monasteries, archpriests and priests;

“YOUR REVERENCE” - to archdeacons and deacons.

If an official was appointed to a position of a class that was higher than his rank, he used the general title of the position (for example, the provincial leader of the nobility used the title of III-IV classes - “your excellency”, even if by rank or origin he had the title “your nobility"). When written by official When lower officials addressed higher officials, both titles were called, and the private one was used both by position and by rank and followed the general title (for example, “His Excellency Comrade Minister of Finance Privy Councilor”). From ser. 19th century the private title by rank and surname began to be omitted. When addressing a lower official in a similar manner, only the private title of the position was retained (the surname was not indicated). Equal officials addressed each other either as inferiors, or by name and patronymic, indicating the common title and surname in the margins of the document. Honorary titles (except for the title of member of the State Council) were usually also included in the title, and in this case the private title by rank was usually omitted. Persons who did not have a rank used a general title in accordance with the classes to which the title belonging to them was equated (for example, chamber cadets and manufactory advisers received the right to the general title “your honor”). When speaking orally to higher ranks, a general title was used; to equal and inferior citizens. ranks were addressed by first and patronymic or last name; to the military ranks - by rank with or without the addition of a surname. Lower ranks had to address sub-ensigns and non-commissioned officers by rank with the addition of the word “Mr.” (for example, “Mr. Sergeant Major”). There were also titles by origin (by “dignity”).

A special system of private and general titles existed for the clergy. The monastic (black) clergy was divided into 5 ranks: the metropolitan and archbishop were titled “your eminence”, the bishop – “your eminence”, the archimandrite and abbot – “your eminence”. The three highest ranks were also called bishops, and they could be addressed with the general title "sovereign". The white clergy had 4 ranks: archpriest and priest (priest) were titled - “your reverence”, protodeacon and deacon - “your reverence”.
All persons who had ranks (military, civil, courtiers) wore uniforms, according to their type of service and rank class. The ranks of the I-IV classes had a red lining in their overcoats. Special uniforms were reserved for persons who held honorary titles (secretary of state, chamberlain, etc.). The ranks of the imperial retinue wore shoulder straps and epaulets with the imperial monogram and aiguillettes.

The conferment of ranks and honorary titles, as well as the appointment to positions, the awarding of orders, etc., was formalized by the orders of the tsar in military and civil matters. and court departments and was noted in the official (service) lists. The latter were introduced back in 1771, but received their final form and began to be carried out systematically in 1798 as a mandatory document for each of the persons who were in the state. service. These lists are an important historical source when studying the official biography of these individuals. Since 1773, lists of citizens began to be published annually. ranks (including courtiers) of classes I-VIII; after 1858, the publication of lists of ranks I-III and separately IV classes continued. Similar lists of generals, colonels, lieutenant colonels and army captains were also published, as well as “List of persons who were in the naval department and fleet admirals, staff and chief officers...”.

After the February Revolution of 1917, the title system was simplified. Ranks, ranks and titles were abolished by the decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars of November 10. 1917 “On the destruction of estates and civil ranks.”

In everyday business settings (business, work situations), speech etiquette formulas are also used. For example, when summing up the results of work, when determining the results of selling goods or participating in exhibitions, when organizing various events, meetings, the need arises to thank someone or, conversely, to reprimand or make a remark. At any job, in any organization, someone may have the need to give advice, make a proposal, make a request, express consent, allow, prohibit, or refuse someone.

Here are the speech cliches that are used in these situations.

Expression of gratitude:

Let me (let me) express my (great, great) gratitude to Nikolai Petrovich Bystrov for the excellent (excellent) organized exhibition.

The company (directorate, administration) expresses gratitude to all employees (teaching staff) for…

I must express my gratitude to the head of the supply department for...

Let me (let me) express my great (huge) gratitude...

For the provision of any service, for help, an important message, or a gift, it is customary to thank with the following words:

I am grateful to you for...

-(Big, huge) thank you (you) for...

-(I am) very (so) grateful to you!

The emotionality and expressiveness of expressing gratitude is enhanced if you say:

There are no words to express (my) gratitude to you!

I am so grateful to you that it is difficult for me to find words!

You can't imagine how grateful I am to you!

– My gratitude has no (knows) no boundaries!

Note, warning:

The company (directorate, board, editorial office) is forced to issue a (serious) warning (remark)…

To (great) regret (chagrin), I must (force) make a remark (condemn) ...

Often people, especially those in power, consider it necessary to express their suggestions, advice in categorical form:

All (you) must (must)…

You should definitely do this...

Advice and suggestions expressed in this form are similar to orders or instructions and do not always give rise to a desire to follow them, especially if the conversation takes place between colleagues of the same rank. Inducement to action by advice or suggestion can be expressed in a delicate, polite or neutral form:

Let me (let me) give you advice (advise you)…

Let me offer you...

-(I) want (I would like, I would like) to advise (offer) you...

I would advise (suggest) you...

I advise (suggest) you...

Appeal with the request should be delicate, extremely polite, but without excessive ingratiation:

Do me a favor and fulfill (my) request...

If it’s not difficult for you (it won’t be difficult for you)…

Don’t consider it a labor, please take it...

-(Can) I ask you...

- (Please), (I beg you) allow me...

The request can be expressed with some categoricalness:

I urgently (convincingly, very) ask you (you) ...

Agreement, The resolution is formulated as follows:

-(Now, immediately) will be done (completed).

Please (I allow, I don’t object).

I agree to let you go.

I agree, do (do) as you think.

In case of failure expressions used:

-(I) cannot (unable, unable) to help (allow, assist).

-(I) cannot (unable, unable) to fulfill your request.

It is currently not possible to do this.

Understand that now is not the time to ask (make such a request).

Sorry, but we (I) cannot (can) fulfill your request.

– I am forced to prohibit (refuse, not allow).

Among business people of any rank, it is customary to resolve issues that are especially important to them in a semi-official setting. For this purpose, hunting, fishing, outings are organized, followed by an invitation to a dacha, a restaurant, a sauna. Speech etiquette also changes in accordance with the situation; it becomes less formal and acquires a relaxed, emotionally expressive character. But even in such an environment, subordination is observed, a familiar tone of expression, or speech “looseness” is not allowed.

An important component of speech etiquette is compliment. Said tactfully and at the right time, it lifts the mood of the recipient and sets him up for a positive attitude towards his opponent. A compliment is said at the beginning of a conversation, during a meeting, acquaintance, or during a conversation, when parting. A compliment is always nice. Only an insincere compliment, a compliment for the sake of a compliment, an overly enthusiastic compliment are dangerous.

The compliment refers to appearance, testifies to the excellent professional abilities of the addressee, his high morality, gives an overall positive assessment:

You look good (excellent, wonderful, excellent, magnificent, young).

You do not change (have not changed, do not grow old).

Time spares you (does not take you).

You are (so, very) charming (smart, quick-witted, resourceful, reasonable, practical).

You are a good (excellent, excellent, excellent) specialist (economist, manager, entrepreneur, partner).

You run (your) business (business, trade, construction) well (excellent, excellent, excellent).

You know how to lead (manage) people well (excellently) and organize them.

It’s a pleasure (good, excellent) to do business (work, cooperate) with you.

Communication presupposes the presence of one more term, one more component, which manifests itself throughout the entire communication, is its integral part, and serves as a bridge from one replica to another. And at the same time, the norm of use and the form of the term itself have not been finally established, cause disagreement, and are a sore point of Russian speech etiquette.

This is eloquently stated in a letter published in Komsomolskaya Pravda (24.01.91) for signed by Andrey. They posted a letter entitled “Extra People.” Let's give it without abbreviations:

We are probably the only country in the world where people do not address each other. We don't know how to contact a person! Man, woman, girl, granny, comrade, citizen - ugh! Or maybe a female person, a male person! And easier - hey! We are nobody! Neither for the state, nor for each other!

The author of the letter, in an emotional form, quite sharply, using language data, raises the question of the position of man in our state. Thus, the syntactic unit is appeal– becomes a socially significant category.

To understand this, it is necessary to understand what is unique about address in the Russian language and what its history is.

From time immemorial, circulation has performed several functions. The main one is to attract the attention of the interlocutor. This - vocative function.

Since they are used as proper names as addresses (Anna Sergeevna, Igor, Sasha), and names of people according to degree of relationship (father, uncle, grandfather), by position in society, by profession, position (president, general, minister, director, accountant), by age and gender (old man, boy, girl), address other than vocative function indicates the corresponding sign.

Finally, appeals can be expressive and emotionally charged, contain an assessment: Lyubochka, Marinusya, Lyubka, a blockhead, a dunce, a klutz, a rogue, a smart girl, a beauty. The peculiarity of such addresses is that they characterize both the addressee and the addressee himself, the degree of his education, attitude towards the interlocutor, and emotional state.

The given address words are used in an informal situation, only some of them, for example, proper names (in their basic form), names of professions, positions, serve as addresses in official speech.

A distinctive feature of officially accepted appeals in Rus' was the reflection of the social stratification of society, such a characteristic feature as veneration of rank.

Isn’t that why the root in Russian is rank proved to be prolific, giving life

In words: official, bureaucracy, dean, deanery, love of rank, veneration of rank, bureaucrat, officialdom, disorderly, disorderly, destroyer of rank, destroyer of rank, admirer of rank, stealer of rank, decorum, decency, submit, subordination,

Word combinations: not by rank, distribute by rank, rank by rank, large rank, without sorting ranks, without rank, rank by rank;

Proverbs: Honor the rank of the rank, and sit on the edge of the youngest; The bullet does not distinguish the officials; For a fool of great rank, there is room everywhere; There are two whole ranks: a fool and a fool; And he would be in rank, but it’s a pity, his pockets are empty.

Also indicative are the formulas of dedications, addresses and signatures of the author himself, which were cultivated in the 18th century. For example, the work of M.V. Lomonosov's “Russian Grammar” (1755) begins with the dedication:

To the Most Serene Sovereign, Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich, Duke of Holstein-Schleswig, Storman and Ditmar, Count of Oldenburg and Dolmangor, and so on, to the Most Gracious Sovereign...

Then comes the appeal:

Most Serene Sovereign, Grand Duke, Most Gracious Sovereign!

And signature:

Your Imperial Majesty's most humble slave, Mikhail Lomonosov.

The social stratification of society, the inequality that existed in Russia for several centuries, was reflected in the system of official appeals.

Firstly, there was the document “Table of Ranks”, published in 1717–1721, which was then republished in a slightly modified form. It listed military (army and naval), civil and court ranks. Each category of ranks was divided into 14 classes. So, they belonged to the 3rd class lieutenant general, lieutenant general; Vice Admiral; Privy Councillor; marshal, master of horse, jägermeister, chamberlain, chief master of ceremonies; to 6th grade – colonel; captain 1st rank; collegiate advisor; camera fourier; by 12th grade – cornet, cornet; midshipman; provincial secretary.

In addition to the named ranks, which determined the system of appeals, there were Your Excellency, Your Excellency, Your Excellency, Your Highness, Your Majesty, Most Gracious (Merciful) Sovereign, Sovereign and etc.

Secondly, the monarchical system in Russia until the 20th century maintained the division of people into classes. A class-organized society was characterized by a hierarchy of rights and responsibilities, class inequality and privileges. Classes were distinguished: nobles, clergy, commoners, merchants, townspeople, peasants. Hence the appeals sir, madam in relation to people of privileged social groups; sir, madam - for the middle class or master, lady for both, and the lack of a uniform appeal to representatives of the lower class. Here is what Lev Uspensky writes about this:

My father was a major official and engineer. His views were very radical, and by origin he was “from the third estate” - a commoner. But even if the fantasy had even occurred to him to say on the street: “Hey, sir, on Vyborgskaya!” or: “Mr. Cabby, are you free?” he wouldn't be happy. The driver, most likely, would have taken him for a drunken guy, or he would have simply gotten angry: “It’s a sin, master, to break down over a simple person! Well, what kind of “master” am I to you? You should be ashamed!” (Koms. pr. 11/18/77).

In the languages ​​of other civilized countries, unlike Russian, there were addresses that were used both in relation to a person occupying a high position in society and to an ordinary citizen: Mr, Mrs, Miss(England, USA), senor, senora, senorita(Spain), signor, signora, signorina(Italy), sir, lady(Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia).

“In France,” writes L. Uspensky, “even the concierge at the entrance to the house calls the landlady “Madame”; but the hostess, albeit without any respect, will address her employee in the same way: “Bonjour, Madame I see!” A millionaire who accidentally gets into a taxi will call the driver “Monsieur,” and the taxi driver will tell him, opening the door: “Sil vou plait, Monsieur!” - “Please, sir!” There, too, this is the norm” (ibid.).

After the October Revolution, all old ranks and titles were abolished by a special decree. Universal equality is proclaimed. Appeals sir - madam, master - lady, sir - madam, dear sir (empress) gradually disappear. Only diplomatic language preserves the formulas of international politeness. Thus, the heads of monarchical states are addressed: Your Majesty, Your Excellency; foreign diplomats continue to be called Mr. - Mrs.

Instead of all the appeals that existed in Russia, starting from 1917–1918, the appeals are becoming widespread citizen And comrade. The history of these words is remarkable and instructive.

Word citizen recorded in monuments of the 11th century. It came into the Old Russian language from the Old Church Slavonic language and served as a phonetic version of the word city ​​dweller Both meant “resident of the city (city).” In this meaning citizen also found in texts dating back to the 19th century. So A.S. Pushkin has these lines:

Not a demon - not even a gypsy,
But just a citizen of the capital.

In the 18th century, this word acquired the meaning of “a full member of society, the state.”

The most boring title, of course, was the emperor.

Who was usually called “sovereign”?

Word sovereign in Russia in the old days they used it indifferently, instead of lord, master, landowner, nobleman. In the 19th century, the tsar was addressed as the Most Gracious Sovereign, the great princes were addressed as the Most Gracious Sovereign, all private individuals were addressed as the Most Gracious Sovereign (when addressing a superior), my gracious Sovereign (to an equal), my Sovereign (to an inferior). The words sudar (also with emphasis on the second syllable), sudarik (friendly) were used mainly in oral speech.

When addressing men and women at the same time, they often say “Ladies and gentlemen!” This is an unsuccessful copy of the English language (Ladies and Gentlemen). In Russian the word gentlemen corresponds equally to singular forms sir And madam, and “madam” is included in the number of “gentlemen”.

After the October Revolution, “sir”, “madam”, “mister”, “madam” were replaced by the word "comrade". It removed differences in gender (both men and women were addressed this way) and social status (since it was impossible to address a person with a low status as “sir” or “madam”). Before the revolution, the word comrade in a surname indicated membership in a revolutionary political party, including the communists.

Words "citizen"/"citizen" were intended for those who were not yet seen as “comrades”, and are still associated today with courtroom reporting rather than with the French Revolution, which introduced them into the practice of speech. Well, after perestroika, some “comrades” became “masters”, and circulation remained only in the communist environment.

sources

http://www.gramota.ru/

Emysheva E.M., Mosyagina O.V. — History of etiquette. Court etiquette in Russia in the 18th century.

And I’ll also remind you who they are The original article is on the website InfoGlaz.rf Link to the article from which this copy was made -

An address is a word or combination of words that names the person to whom the speech is addressed. Addresses primarily serve as names of people, names of persons by degree of relationship, position in society, profession, occupation, position, rank, nationality or age, relationships between people. Without it it is difficult to imagine communication. It is used, first of all, to attract the attention of the person to whom the speaker is addressing.

The structure and meaning of addresses vary depending on the form and degree of speech. In colloquial speech, less common addresses are more common, calling a person by name, by first name and patronymic, by last name. There are common addresses in written speech. In them, the name of a person is often accompanied by definitions that express the speaker’s attitude towards the named person. Addresses in the language of artistic works are extremely diverse in structure and meaning, especially in poetic speech. They draw the reader's attention to the addressee. When forming appeals, writers use different types of definitions: agreed and inconsistent, applications, and use a series of homogeneous appeals. I believe that considering English forms of address in various aspects of life is very important. Our research is devoted to the consideration of various forms of address, which we have combined into the following groups:

1. forms of address related to family relationships;

2. affectionate and friendly forms of address;

3. polite forms of address;

4. unfriendly, offensive forms of treatment.

In the practical part, we tried to analyze the features of the use of various forms of address in the United States of America.

Statement of the problem, goals and objectives

The problem: the difficulty of using forms of address necessary in communicating with foreigners, in educational activities, in self-development, in achieving deep knowledge of the English language.

Goal: expanding knowledge about forms of address in English.

Based on the goal, I identified the following tasks in my work:

1. identify, using practical material and examples from works of English fiction, the specifics of the speech behavior of native English speakers;

2. analyze and give a comparative description of the linguistic and speech means of expressing forms of address in English etiquette;

3. study the types of requests;

4. conduct a sociological study among students and teachers who constantly listen to the radio and the media on the topic “Forms of address in English” to obtain information on this issue;

5. learn to apply this knowledge in the process of practical work.

6. trace how forms of address are used in the media, fiction and popular science literature in English in the USA.

7. develop a series of exercises to develop the ability to correctly use forms of address and to prepare for the Unified State Exam.

8. replenish the school teaching box with material on the topic: “Forms of address in English”

Relevance and novelty of the research. Skillful use of addresses is an important element of any national culture. In the language, in speech behavior, in stable formulas of communication, rich folk experience, the uniqueness of customs, lifestyles, and living conditions of each people are deposited, since each language has its own worldview. Being part of the evolutionary path of humanity, language develops depending on changes in the spiritual and material life of society and, therefore, reflects the historical, cognitive experience of the people, their moral ideals and moral standards, perception and assessment of the surrounding reality.

English is a rich and ancient language. Like any language, it has accumulated a large number of different forms of address. About 20% of the world's population speaks English. Doctors and scientists are trying to answer the same questions all over the world. They find it easy to exchange their ideas in English. English has become a means of communication in countries where different groups of people speak different languages. English is the only solution to their communication problems. English is called the language of the sky and sea. Every pilot and captain of the ship must speak English to communicate with each other. A huge part of the vocabulary in the world computer system is in English.

English is the language of politicians. Delegates at the summits communicate in English, along with French and German. Most international journalists should know English. 75% of all international business letters are written in English. Almost 50% of different companies communicate with each other in English.

Therefore, I decided to choose “Forms of Address in English” as the topic of my work.

The degree of knowledge of the topic. Forms of address are expressed in fixed rules and norms of speech behavior. In recent years, this has been the object of serious research in the field of linguistics, in particular, the study of national mentality. However, very little attention has been paid to the study of forms of address. Therefore, our study is dictated by the need to subject this topic to a thorough analysis.

Forms of address in English

Forms of address are a linguistic means of expressing mutual relations between people in a certain social community, since the choice of a polite or impolite form conveys not only the tastes of individual people, but also the linguistic skills of individual classes of society or the entire society as a whole. Of particular interest is the use of forms of address between people common in English society. This group includes standard polite forms of address that are applicable in a conversation with almost any partner.

The main function of the address is very often combined with an expressive assessment, which is expressed in different ways: intonation, repetition of the address, accompanying interjections or particles.

Calls are characterized by the so-called vocative intonation, which is their important expressive feature. The main thing in them must be recognized as the place of address in the sentence. Appeals are possible at the beginning (prepositive), in the middle (interpositive) and at the end of a sentence (postpositive). The emotional connotation of prepositive addresses can receive a special design: repetition and grouping of addresses into coordinating rows are used, which enhances the vocative intonation.

1 Forms of address related to family relationships.

The address father (to father) continues to remain either in this form or in such colloquial forms as dad, daddy, pa, papa and so on. The address mother also has many colloquial variations: ma, mam, mum, mamma, non, mummy and so on. The address son (to a son) is more typical for fathers, while the address daughter (to a daughter) is rarely used by parents nowadays. Geminis are often referred to as twins. Individually, children are addressed by personal names, household nicknames, or use endearing words for this purpose.

Children traditionally address older family members (grandparents) with the words grandpa, granddad, grandma, granny, and so on. The latter use personal names to address their grandchildren instead of words such as grandson or granddaughter. Addresses to other close relatives include the words uncle, aunt, auntie, sometimes combined with the personal names Uncle Jack, Aunt Margaret. Addresses between husband and wife are personal names, endearing nicknames, or endearing words. The addresses brother and sister are rare nowadays. Usually the personal names of brother and sister are used. Note that outside family relations brother and sister are used more often.

2. 2 Affectionate and friendly forms of address

Numerous forms of address that express the speaker’s positive attitude towards the addressee are very popular in modern English. Among them we can mention baby, boy, dear, angel, dearest, dear boy, dear girl, friend, honey (the latest addresses mean “dear, dear”) kid, love, lovely, sweet, sweatheart, sweets. This also includes various forms of friendly addresses with my or my dear: my precious, my dear son, my dear doughter, my dear sweet, swest heart and so on. The formula with old is very typical for friendly treatment: old boy, old chap, old man (old man).

2. 3 Polite forms of address

The most commonly used form of polite address is the use of the combination Mr. , Mrs. , or Miss (for a young girl or unmarried woman) + the surname of the person being addressed: “Mr. Jones “, I`d like to tell to you. “The address Miss can be used by schoolchildren if their teacher is a young woman: Good morning, miss. The polite form of addressing a woman is Madam. For example, a salesman in a store addresses a customer: Can I help you, madam? “The appropriate form of address to a man (especially one of higher status) is Sir. This is how schoolchildren turn to male teachers, military personnel to senior ranks, store clerks to customers, police officers to passers-by, and so on. The address Sir is used without a first and last name. When addressed in a group, it is replaced by the word gentlemen, and the word Madam by the word ladies: ladies and gentlemen!

Let's also consider other polite addresses to people holding certain positions or having a particular profession. Addressing people in the medical profession politely usually involves using their professional titles. So, calling a doctor is doctor. In the armed forces, addressing military personnel usually includes their rank (with or without a surname): Admiral (Smith), General, Colonel, Major, Captain, Lieutenant, Sergeant, Corporal. Addressing in the form “title + surname” is more formal. A policeman is also addressed by his rank: Sergeant ("police sergeant"), Inspector ("police inspector"). Colloquial address to a police officer. In the scientific world, in official cases it is customary to address people by title: Professor, Senior, Tutor, Dean, and so on. Note that some addresses directly related to the names of professions can hardly be considered polite. They are neutral and are used quite often. For example, to attract the attention of a waiter in a restaurant, you address him: “Waiter!”, Call a porter at the station: “Porter!”, Say to a taxi driver: “Stop here, driver.” Many forms of address in the plural sound neutral. Thus, in the words and expressions, everybody, both of you, all of you, etc., the emphasis is more on the expression of plurality itself, and not on politeness or friendly relations. Appeals become much more aggressive if they are preceded by you: “You two”, “You lot” and the like.

2 Unfriendly, offensive forms of treatment

It is generally accepted to interpret most addresses like you + adjective + noun as negative (unfriendly, offensive). Typical examples of the implementation of this model: You bloody fool, you bloody swine, you dirty bastard, you old cow and so on. Often the qualifying adjective is omitted: you bastard, you fool, and so on. Among the negative references there are many words associated with the animal world (zoonyms): ass, cat, cow, goat, hog, jackass, louse, pig, shrew, skunk, swine, turkey, vermin and so on.

In English there is also a pronounced tendency to form negative references to the component - head blockhead, blunder head, bonehead, fathead, muttonhead, pinhead, pudding head, steep head and so on.

In the Russian language there are such forms of address, each of which has a one-word equivalent in English. At the same time, the English word (phrase), acting as an address, has a pronounced emotional component of connotative meaning, which is absent in the Russian language: boy - boy, girl - girl, Young man - young man, acting as addresses, they often acquire , a very definite (usually negative) meaning. The emotional component includes expressiveness, which is most clearly manifested in words such as bee - bee, hardworking person; fledgling - just a fledgling youngster, an inexperienced youngster; fashion-plate – a fashionable picture, an ultra-fashionably dressed woman. The evaluative component is possessed by those words that express a positive or negative judgment about what they name. This group contains lexemes with a negative meaning: grimalkin - an angry, grumpy old woman; old hag; driveller - slobber; idiot; blockhead - blockhead; cabbage-head - dumbass.

3. Practical part: features of the use of various forms of address in the USA

Forms of address are a linguistic means of expressing mutual relations between people in a certain social community, since “the choice of a polite or impolite form conveys not only the tastes of individual people, but also the linguistic skills of individual classes of society or the entire society as a whole.” Of particular interest is the practice of using common forms of address between people in English society. This group includes standard polite formulas of address that are applicable in a conversation with almost any partner. These include the addresses Mr, Miss, Mrs, Ms, Sir, Madam and some others.

The most acceptable form of polite address is to use the combination Mr, Mrs or Miss + the surname of the person being addressed.

The form Miss + surname is a standard polite address for an unmarried woman if she is not supposed to be addressed in any other way (Lady, Doctor, etc.) Currently, Miss, like Mrs, is often replaced by the neutral Ms, which blurs the distinction between married and unmarried woman. The form Mrs + surname refers to a married woman, where the second element is the husband's surname.

Women with successful professional careers often retain their maiden name after marriage, using the form Mrs + husband's last name only in formal settings. In most cases, this applies to actresses, writers, and often teachers. As a rule, the communicative-pragmatic meaning of Mrs + surname lies, first of all, in the emphatically respectful, somewhat official-neutral attitude of the speaker towards the addressee.

The most common address Mister, which is not followed by a surname, can be considered the address of children to strangers. In the fall, while collecting money for a “stuffed Guy Fawkes,” children attack passers-by with the request “Penny for the guy, Mister!” The practice of calling Mister without a name is changing. Such treatment may be openly aggressive. The coach of a professional American football team addresses the player: “It"s not up to you to judge what"s good and bad here, mister"

In the above example, the context itself emphasizes the meaning of the address Mister. However, if the addressee had used his own first or last name after this address, the essence would have been somewhat different. The statement would take on a more neutral character.

In a greeting, if Mister speaks with a questioning intonation, it acts as a demand or request to name a name: “Good morning, Mister?”

Mister can also be considered as a necessary, polite prefix for some professional titles: Mr President, Mr Chairman, Mr Secretary, Mr Speaker, etc.

Miss is a traditionally polite form of address to a young woman or girl. In certain situations, the address Miss can also be used in relation to an older woman, but as a professional title. A waitress in a restaurant or a saleswoman in a store can be addressed as Miss: “Two cups of coffee, Miss.” » The address Miss can be used by schoolchildren if their teacher is a young woman: “Good morning, Miss.”

If earlier (in the 19th century) Miss was used only as an address to an interlocutor who was higher in social status, now, as you can see, the range of use of such an address has expanded significantly.

The address Madam is used without a first and last name. When addressed in a group, it is replaced by the word ladies.

In the middle of the 20th century. The address Madam was considered an indicator of great respect for a woman of high social position. The address is borrowed from French; its equivalent is “my lady”. The address madam became widespread among the middle class. This appeal mainly applied to married women and was used by those who were lower than the latter in social status and status. Currently, the address madam can also be used in relation to a young girl who behaves authoritarianly. As a semi-professional title-prefix, madam is used in addresses such as Madam Chairman, Madam Mayor, being an indicator of the gender of the holder of a particular post, previously occupied only by men.

Addressing female clients in stores, hairdressers, restaurants, etc. like “Good morning, Madam,” “Can I help you, madam?” can be considered as a kind of verbal equivalent of the phrase “I work here and it's my job to serve you.” Such an address seems to “replace” the uniform of the service personnel.

However, there are cases when the addressee avoids using the address madam, since the very fact of its use confirms the insignificance of the addressee himself, the fact that he is lower in social status than the addressee. In this case, the address characterizes not the person addressed - the addressee, but, to a greater extent, the addressee himself:

Sometimes, the address “madam” is used to characterize the addressee, in order to highlight his special features, usually his bossy behavior.

Sir. Traditionally, the form of address Sir was considered as an indicator of respect for the addressee. By using this form, the addressee acknowledges and emphasizes the fact that the addressee is superior to him socially or professionally. The address “sir” is used without first and last names. When addressed in a group, it is replaced by the word gentlemen.

The reaction to Sir’s appeal depends on the conditions of communication, on the “sphere of communication” (where? – when?). For example, in the American Midwest - an agricultural region known for its established conservatism, patriarchal way of life, in the so-called American "outback", many fathers still take the Sir call for granted. So, according to a young girl who lived there back in 1988, she addressed her father as “sir” and her mother as “ta”at,” which was in the order of things, perhaps because, as she explained, her family could be “several old-fashioned," since they live in the Midwest of the United States. In military organizations, there is no choice of forms of address, and the address "sir" is necessary to maintain the army hierarchy. If friendly relations arise between colleagues, it is possible to dispense with formalities, and a senior officer can " "sir" occurs for various reasons: some are offended by the hint of old age, others are confused by the respect implied in this address, others see it as ridicule. Naturally, all of these examples refer to situations that go beyond the normal, conventional cases of using the address "sir", which were mentioned above (salesman in a store to a buyer, steward on a ship to a passenger, etc.).

Squire. There is no definite opinion regarding this use of address. Some researchers consider it friendly, others view it as somewhat contemptuous. It is often used to refer to people belonging to the middle class.

Perhaps the most popular working-class honorific, common throughout Britain, is governor. The pronunciation of governor can vary depending on who is using it, and is often shortened to guv. Often the function of this address comes down to flattering the interlocutor, from whom the speaker expects some kind of favor (especially material). For example, London taxi drivers, when addressing their clients, prefer to use governor, avoiding the more traditional address Sir.

I was interested to know how the students and teachers of our school know the forms of address in English. Undoubtedly, research into the practice of using various forms of address in the communication of people in the English-speaking community helps to identify both the specifics of interpersonal communication and the specifics of the culture of communication as a whole.

To complete the study, we conducted a sociological survey to determine the level of proficiency in forms of address in English.

3. 2 Sociological survey

During the social survey, 126 respondents of different ages were interviewed.

Analyzing the results of my research, I made the following conclusions:

1. respondents do not know enough about forms of address in English;

2. are interested in issues of varieties of such forms;

3. have a positive attitude towards the use of abbreviated names in English speech.

The respondents performed the exercise in different ways. Most completed the task. If necessary, an address was used, or a word was written next to this sentence. I noticed that not all participants know how to use addresses in English and what they mean. Some questions were misleading or required clarification on my part.

I believe that the level of knowledge in the field of understanding and using forms of address is different and requires further development. To do this, I plan to hold: hours of communication with peers, a round table, interactive games and conversations on the topic: “Forms of address in English.”

In order to practice the use of forms of address and prepare for the Unified State Exam, we have developed a series of exercises on this topic.

Conclusion

Research result.

In this paper, we examined the use of various forms of address in the English language of the English-speaking community. This helps to identify both the specifics of interpersonal communication and the specifics of communication culture as a whole.

1. We found out, using practical material, using examples from works of English fiction, the specifics of the speech behavior of native English speakers;

2. analyzed and gave a comparative description of the linguistic and speech means of expressing forms of address in English etiquette;

3. studied the types of requests;

4. Conducted a sociological study among students and teachers who constantly listen to radio and media on the topic “Forms of address in the English language” in order to obtain information on this issue;

6. We traced how forms of address are used in the media, fiction and popular science literature in English in the USA.

7. We have developed a series of exercises to develop the ability to correctly use forms of address and to prepare for the Unified State Exam.

Research prospects.

1. In the future, it is planned to study forms of address in English using the material of fiction and the media.

We saw that there are still difficulties in using and understanding some forms of address, so in the future we will continue to work on creating a practical guide for practicing the correct use of forms of address in speech and preparing for the Unified State Exam.

In this article we will tell you how to walk the fine line between familiarity and ingratiation. We'll explain how to show respect to your partner while maintaining dignity.

Download useful materials on the topic:

How to formulate a formal address in a business letter

The main task of speech etiquette is to express politeness, respect and sincere intentions. Even the most insignificant manifestation of tactlessness and incorrect choice of expressions can play a cruel joke on the author of the letter and nip in the bud the beginning of mutually beneficial cooperation. Two requests that are identical in meaning can be distinguished only by the form of expression, a few seemingly insignificant words and addresses. But the results of these requests will be diametrically opposed: a decisive refusal and unconditional consent.

Such “insignificant” elements in a business letter for an inexperienced person are the forms of address to a business partner. The address is the initial part of the message, the farewell is the final part. Together they make up the etiquette frame of the letter, the function of which is to establish and maintain contact with the addressee.

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Sometimes, even before contacting, a standard form of greeting is used in the text. It is important to make a few notes here. In business written communication It is unacceptable to use the expression “Good day!” This is acceptable in humorous correspondence between friends. But in official letters this is bad form. If you don’t know what time the recipient will read your message, write simply, without any pretense: “Hello” and “Good afternoon.”

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How to write an appeal in a letter

After the standard greeting, add a message to the recipient. There may be several options here, the choice of which depends on the degree of closeness of your relationship, the purpose of the letter and the information you have about the addressee. Let's look at them all.

If you know the person's name, to whom you are writing, it is preferable to use it. There are a number of rules that must be followed.

1. You cannot use a truncated form of your name, even if you are in a confidential relationship with a business partner. For example, you cannot write “Good afternoon, Sash” or “Hello, An.” This is appropriate in spoken language, but not in written language.
2. Between two options - full name and first name + patronymic - choose the second. Be guided by the information provided by the addressee. This can usually be extracted from a business card, the “From” field in an email, or from a standard block of contact information at the end of the text.
3. If you don't know the name of the person you're writing to, use a standard "Hello" or "Good afternoon." Make your appeal more personalized if the situation allows. For example, “Dear colleague” or “Dear subscriber.”

Memo: examples of addressing the addressee in a business letter

How to write a letter to your manager

When contacting a manager, it is important to comply with the standard and generally accepted forms. Place the appeal in the middle of the letter and write with a capital letter. Indicate your position, last name or first and patronymic name. When addressing a manager, the generally accepted norm is to use the word “respected”:

The word “respected” when applied to a leader is the preferred, but not the only option. There is a standard formula for addressing a VIP. For example, to members of the government, the State Duma, governors, mayors, honored workers of science, art, as well as famous public figures. When you address a letter to one of them, instead of the word “dear,” use “deeply respected” or “highly respected.” You can use an exclamation mark at the end if you wish.

If you are addressing not one person, but a group, it is more appropriate to address “Dear Sirs!” or “Dear colleagues!” Sometimes the question arises which form of address is better to choose - “Dear Mr. Smirnov” or “Dear Alexey Nikolaevich.” The rule here is this. If the letter is of an official nature and the relationship with the partner is just getting better, then the first option is more appropriate, but when the relationship is already established, then the second can be used.

The final part of the letter

In the final part, outline the prospects for cooperation, business relations, project implementation, and a positive solution to the issue. Express hope, approval, gratitude, confidence. At the end of the letter, you should not remind about past negative moments, if there were any. For example, you did not receive a response on time or did not receive it at all. Reminding them of this may cause a negative reaction or be seen as a sign of disrespect.

Any business letter ends with a signature. Be sure to include your position, first and last name. Before this, you can insert the standard etiquette formula: “With respect.” Possible options: “Sincerely yours”, “With hope for productive cooperation”, “With gratitude for your cooperation.”

Hint: options for ending the letter

It is important to take into account the official position of the addressee and addressee. The message must be signed by the General Director or his deputy, if your message is also addressed to the General Director. Of course, the signature must correspond to the transcript: it is unacceptable to put a slash next to the director’s last name, after which there will be a deputy’s signature.

Postscript is rarely used in business correspondence. A special case is the need to inform the person to whom the message is addressed, important news that occurred after and at the time of writing the letter. An option is possible when there is a need to inform the addressee of some information indirectly related to the main topic of the letter.

Applications are also optional part of the letter. If they exist, it is important to note that in business correspondence, attachments are drawn up on separate sheets and are also numbered separately. There are no special standard rules for application design.

Verbal image of culture

E. G. Andreeva

Forms of appeals to loved ones: experience of Russian-English comparative analysis

One of the very exciting areas in modern linguistic research is the sociolinguistic analysis of linguistic data. The function of language as a social sign that helps determine the speaker’s belonging to a certain layer of society, his culture and origin, education and the region in which he grew up is well known even to non-specialists - just remember the world-famous musical based on the equally famous play by Bernard Shaw “Pygmalion” . It is curious that in recent years, when the seemingly traditional class stratification of society in the past is gradually erased and loses its significance due to a decrease in differences between classes, interest in the language of different social strata, the ability to identify the place of the interlocutor in the social hierarchy solely by as he says, he becomes, on the contrary, more intent. Linguists and social anthropologists pay attention to phonetic-articulatory features typical of different class groups, the specificity of the melodic pattern of speech, characteristic vocabulary and regularly used grammatical structures, trying to identify social markers among them1.

In addition to socially significant elements and models within a particular linguistic community, each language is also characterized by national linguistic features that can distinguish it even from closely related languages. As a result of language interference, those language stereotypes to which speakers of different languages ​​become accustomed from childhood are inevitably transferred to the foreign languages ​​they use, which, although it does not lead to noticeable deviations from the language norm and is not perceived as a speech error, still gives speech in a non-native language language a certain unnaturalness, also perceived by speakers as a kind of “accent”. The divergent elements and structures in the two languages ​​that lead to this can form a very extensive list, and their comprehensive and comprehensive analysis may require the joint efforts of not just one, but a whole group of linguists.

1 See, for example: Fox K. Watching the English. The Hidden Rules of English Behavior. - Boston; London, 2008.

Bulletin of the Russian Christian Humanitarian Academy. 2012. Volume 13. Issue 4

One of such culturally and linguistically interesting aspects of the language system is the question of what typical addresses to the interlocutor or, in other words, ways of “naming” the interlocutor are used in dialogical speech in Russian and English. It can be noted that appeals specifically reflect the national and cultural characteristics of languages, are heterogeneous in their composition and have a complex content structure2. In addition, they turn out to be directly related to the concept of the speaker’s personal sphere, which, as Yu. D. Apresyan points out, can be “unexpectedly productive in interpreting linguistic facts that at first glance have nothing in common with each other. Thus, the vocative case in modern Russian (Mash, Kol, papa, mam) is certainly a means of including the addressee in the personal sphere of the speaker”3. These and many other features of addresses as linguistic structures make them an interesting object of linguistic analysis.

The purpose of this report was a comparative analysis of addresses in English and Russian, with an attempt to identify possible differences reflecting national specifics. The practical material was dialogues between characters who love each other, drawn from English and Russian fiction, from feature films of various genres in these languages, including dramas, melodramas, love stories, comedies, action films, science fiction films and TV series. Basically, the analysis was carried out on dialogues between characters with similar character traits, realized in more or less identical situations and reflecting comparable behavior patterns of the characters. This selection of material makes it possible to see the prevailing types and forms of addresses of interlocutors in two languages ​​and to identify nationally specific trends. In total, 449 replicas containing appeals were considered in Russian (from 40 sources) and 492 in English (from 35 sources), which seems to be both quantitatively comparable in the two languages ​​under consideration and quite sufficient for obtaining reliable conclusions from the corpus of examples .

Given the differences in the cultures of the languages ​​being compared, we can expect that the fundamental differences in the chosen problem area will concern (a) how regularly and consistently the name of the interlocutor is pronounced; (b) how often it is replaced by other methods of naming; (c) what structural types are used in each language. General ideas about the English and Russian languages ​​indicate that in Russian, most likely, there will be significantly more diminutive forms used when addressing a beloved interlocutor, both due to the productivity of various word-formation models, and due to of great importance expressive word formation in Slavic languages. As A. Vezhbitskaya writes, it carries a functional load that is difficult to overestimate4. In particular, expressive word formation in the sphere of personal names used as addresses allows the speaker to explicitly express his personal sphere. In addition, there may also be discrepancies in the

2 Goldin V. E. Appeal: theoretical problems. - Saratov, 1987. - P. 114.

3 Apresyan Yu. D. Deixis in vocabulary and grammar and the naive model of the world // Integral description of language and systemic lexicography. - M., 1995. - P. 629-651. - P. 646.

4 Wierzbicka A. Personal Names and Expressive Derivation // Semantics, Culture and Cognition: Universal Human Concepts in Culture-Specific Configuration. - New York, 1992.

what kind of nominative units are used by each of the languages ​​in more or less similar situations (for example, when addressing a little daughter, for the Russian language the traditional options are fish or swallow, while for English it is pumpkin).

The analysis shows that in the Russian language the following seven types are typical addresses: full forms of personal proper names, abbreviated forms of personal names, diminutive forms of personal names, common nouns, nicknames, substantivized adjectives, as well as constructions with the possessive pronoun my, my. In English, with the exception of diminutive forms of personal names, there are all other types - just like in Russian, addresses are represented by full forms of proper names, abbreviated forms of personal names, common nouns, nicknames, substantivized adjectives and constructions with a possessive pronoun my.

A more serious difference between the lists by language is that English communicants may address each other using last names, which is not recorded in our material for the Russian language. Nevertheless, one cannot help but admit that in a certain Russian-speaking environment (most often in the circles of the technical intelligentsia), husband and wife often resort to surnames when addressing each other. As a rule, this happens in those families where spouses have different surnames, and in such cases, calling by surname takes on a humorous and ironic connotation. It should be noted that for English communication this phenomenon turned out to be rare - in a corpus of 492 replicas, we encountered only one address by name: “- I love you, Mrs. Stevens." And even this use is most likely explained by the very situation in which the dialogue took place - after the wedding ceremony, the hero calls his wife by her last name, thereby demonstrating how important it is for him to marry this woman and that he is proud that she now bears him last name In the remaining dialogues of the corpus, speakers strive to express not so much their attitude to the situation as their feelings towards the interlocutor, which is practically impossible when using such an official form of address as a surname.

We also note that in the Russian material there was not a single address of interlocutors to each other by name and patronymic, which can be explained, first of all, by the sphere (lovers or spouses) to which we limited our material - it is unlikely that loving people will come to head to call your loved one by his official name, which so much “pushes” the interlocutors away from each other and gives the conversation an official tone. Another reason is that all the material was selected from works created at the end of the 20th century and reflecting communicative models of our time (while, for example, in the works of L.N. Tolstoy, spouses often call each other by their patronymic or use a title) .

As for the full forms of proper names, their use in dialogues between close people speaking Russian turns out to be extremely rare (less than 3% of all examples in Russian) and in almost all cases they can be characterized as marked by tone, since more often In general, they either express additional shades (some dissatisfaction with the interlocutor), or indicate the seriousness of the conversation, as, for example, in the remark “Evgeny, I need to talk to you,” where a generally neutral statement takes on a more serious tone due to the use of the full name. In another example

the husband does not agree with what his wife says, does not accept her point of view and tries to reason with her, using a generally softer statement that expresses surprise or bewilderment rather than dissatisfaction. His serious attitude the situation is successfully conveyed by an “official” address to his wife: “Nadezhda, what are you saying!” We can say that, in fact, the appeal in this case partially implements the voluntary function of influencing the addressee. Of course, it should be noted that the shades of seriousness or dissatisfaction discussed above can only convey those full proper names, which can also be used in a diminutive or abbreviated form. Those proper names that do not have abbreviated forms are devoid of such additional connotation, as, for example, in the following remark: “Igor, let’s think about it some more.”

It is quite natural, if we take into account the peculiarities of the morphological structure of the English language, that its speakers address a loved one by his full name much more often than in Russian - in almost every fifth case (19% of all examples). It is also interesting that proper names in the English material turned out to be more diverse than in Russian. Nevertheless, there is also a feature common to addresses by name in both languages, namely, that the vast majority of proper names occupy a phrase-initial position in the utterance, which reveals the appellative function of such addresses.

Speaking about proper names in the English language, one cannot help but emphasize the difficulty of classifying some names in the English language to a specific group, since many of them can be interpreted as a full form, as an abbreviated form, and as a diminutive form. An example of such a controversial case was the female name Bonnie, which can be either a shortened form of Bonita or a full name. Usually such ambiguity is removed if in the text of the work or in the film there are references to the same character in a different form by name, or thanks to reference dictionaries of English proper names. However, regarding this name, none of the sources provided unambiguous information. In this and other similar situations, we interpret the proper name as a full form.

It should be noted that, unlike the Russian language, in English, calling by name in its full form is not characterized by any special tonality that gives the statement additional connotations (greater coldness, formality and detachment of communicants from each other): “- I love you Victor and I could not imagine any man could be more wonderful or more exiting." It is absolutely clear that this remark, despite the address by name in full form, which never gives the utterance additional emotionality, still cannot be called neutral due to the general context.

In Russian, incomplete forms of the proper name are used much more often to address an interlocutor, which reflects the tendency inherent in the Russian colloquial register. It can be said that this particular inversion is also the most stylistically neutral form, which is traditionally presented as formed by simple truncation of the stem, accompanied by the addition of inflection - a or a combination of this inflection with the iotated suffix -й/а(-я): Valery - Valera, Anastasia - Nastya, as well as with the suffixes - sh or - n: Maria - Masha, Pavel - Pasha, Sofya - Sonya, Daria - Dasha. Examples of requests of this kind in our sample are more than five times greater than the number of examples with full

name and make up almost 17% of all replicas of the corpus. They are all very similar: “Pasha, listen, I love you very much!” Often the name of the interlocutor is accompanied by other units that perform the same function of address and enhance the emotional connotation of the statement: “Masha, dear, dear, forgive me!” And although without a proper name the utterance retains its expressive intensity, it is still impossible not to admit that pronouncing the name of the addressee of the remark makes it more personal, more intimate.

Addressing an interlocutor using a shortened form of a name in English is also very common (in our examples it was 15%). A certain difficulty is presented by the homonymy of abbreviated names, when the same form can arise from several names, for example: Al can be formed from Alphonse, as well as from Alan, or from Allen, or from Alvin, or, finally, from Alexander . An additional difficulty is that it is often almost impossible to determine the gender of a person using the abbreviated form, so the name in the example: “- Oh, Al, you must be hungry” - can be either male or female, although, of course, the general context gives us right to assume that this remark was most likely uttered by a woman and addressed to a man.

In general, it can be noted that abbreviated forms of personal names in English are semantically neutral, not marked emotionally and expressively, and in this way they are closer to personal names in the full form. Such semantic neutrality of abbreviated forms of personal names in English fundamentally distinguishes them from similar forms in Russian, which convey closer and warmer relationships between speakers compared to the official full form of the name.

Since the dialogues under consideration are conducted by people who are connected by such a feeling as love, it is not surprising that in the Russian language communicants much more often use a variety of word-formation models, modifying the name of the interlocutor and giving it a more gentle sound. It is quite expected, therefore, that diminutive forms of names turn out to be the most frequent nominations and account for 37% of all requests. The most common subjective evaluation suffixes in the analyzed material are the suffixes -ochka / -ochka / -echka / -enka / -onka. A similar method of expressive word formation of proper names is found in almost all inflected languages, distinguished by developed word and form formation. Each suffix has its own psychophysical content, characterizes and “reveals” not only the addressee, but also the sender. Suffixes such as the ones above, according to Verzhbitskaya, signal something or someone small that evokes good, tender feelings, as happens when we address a beloved child: “Vanechka, are you still angry with me?” Such an address further softens the tone of the question, conveying both the addressee’s affectionate attitude and her desire to make amends and rectify the situation. Some suffixes can be combined with each other, forming new constructs and more complex forms of proper names: “- Lenuska, do you remember what you promised me?” Due to the combination with the suffix -us, the usually “rough” suffix -k when addressing a woman becomes positively colored, and the name as a whole acquires an additional, somewhat ironic, “playful” tone.

Sometimes the diminutive form of a name becomes the main marker of the emotionality of a statement, as can be seen from the following example: “- Rosochka,

Maybe I should call your doctor?” - where exactly the address signals the interlocutor’s attitude, demonstrating his care and participation. In combination with adjectives that have a similar diminutive suffix, the form of the name in question even more clearly reveals the emotionality of the speaker’s attitude: “Andryushenka, poor thing, I’m afraid for you.” It is interesting that, as a rule, in such chains of references both components are decorated with the same suffixes, and if any of them can lose it, it will most likely be a proper name [cf. “Andrey, poor thing, I’m afraid for you” and “Andryushenka, poor thing, I’m afraid for you,” where the first combination sounds clearly more natural than the second].

There are also situations when the diminutive form of a name is used solely to remove the categoricalness of the statement, soften a request or demand, as, say, in the following examples: “Lizonka, there’s nothing funny here” and “Anechka, I love you” I beg you, let’s go there.”

Diminutive forms of English personal names (accounting for 8% of all calls) are most often built according to two main models - by shortening or truncation of the final part of the name with the subsequent addition of suffixes -y / -ie / -e / -ey and -eo / - o, giving a hint of diminutiveness and endearment and by simply shortening the name: “- Where are you going, Joety?”, “Evie, you know it's silly to speak that way”, “Marcy, you are so beautiful!”, “Peg "I'm home!" The second model of diminutive forms of a name is very similar to abbreviated names, so that it is often difficult to determine whether an emotional connotation is actually added by truncation of the final part or not. In the last example (Peg), the address sounds clearly warmer and gentler than other shortened forms.

Analyzing the selected examples of addresses from the point of view of gender preferences, it can be noted that the use of full forms of personal names in English is generally more typical for women than for men, while the latter call their interlocutors-friends by name half as often. It is also significant that in Russian our material gives similar results - female characters more often call their interlocutor by their full name than male characters. Unfortunately, the too small total volume of such examples does not make it possible to talk about this as a typical characteristic of communication in Russian, although it probably reflects a general trend.

On the other hand, addresses in the form of an abbreviated name give us the opposite picture - in dialogues with their loved ones, English men resort to them twice as often as women. This is a striking difference between English and Russian, where abbreviated forms of names are used by both sexes more or less equally often.

The use of diminutive forms of names in English demonstrates an even more noticeable discrepancy between the sexes - in our material, men are five times more likely to address their girlfriends by calling them diminutive names than women (33 male remarks compared to six put into the mouth by the authors women). In Russian, male characters are also much more likely than female characters to use proper names with diminutive suffixes, although not with such a predominance as in English (more than three quarters of all uses of diminutive names are nested

in the mouths of male characters). Apparently, this result indicates that the compared languages ​​reflect stereotypical social roles that are close to both cultures, when a woman is considered weak and defenseless, and a man is considered strong and forgiving.

Let us now turn to common nouns used as occasional addresses, which we will further (with a certain degree of convention) call nicknames. This kind of address most often is not generally accepted and widespread, since it rather reflects the nature of intra-family relationships and, as a rule, should be characterized by consistency of use within a specific pair of communicants. Like affectionate addresses more traditional for the Russian language, they convey the speaker’s tender feelings towards the interlocutor, even if the form of the word itself does not have a diminutive formant: “- Iriska, you should start with the first-aid kit” or “- Fox, I never anyone I’ve never loved anyone except you in my life!” The stability of such nicknames in dialogues and their ability to replace the character’s real name is manifested in the fact that interlocutors use them regularly, one might say, repeatedly, despite the fact that the total number of nicknames used as addresses to a loved one is small - about 8 %.

In full accordance with how this happens in the Russian language, in English nicknames can be either original, occasional, or quite traditional, standardly used in relation to someone who evokes tender feelings in the speaker. Sometimes productions determined by a single specific situation appear in a single dialogue and are not repeated throughout the entire work. This turned out to be, for example, the following: “- I miss you, Benny-Boo-Boo-Boo”, which is based on the character’s name (Benn). Generally speaking, the nickname Scarecrow (Boo) invariably also uses a proper name [cf. Scarecrow Radley - Boo Radley from To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee]. More often, however, the nicknames given to the characters are used as addresses throughout the entire text: “- I’m not talking legality, Preppie, I’m talking ethics”; “- Would’ja, please watch your profanity, Preppie”; “- You don’t know about falling off cliffs, Preppie.” In these examples, the heroine calls her lover not a nickname she invented, but one that is usually given to young people from wealthy families of high society on the east coast of the United States (in other words, who are WASP - White Anglo-Saxon Protestant) for their desire for correct speech, good manners and expensive clothes. Such a nickname, which sounds, on the one hand, quite familiar, and on the other hand, ironic, can be perceived calmly and without offense only in dialogues between very close people.

Another example also refers to a nickname assigned to a character and, although there are no gender connotations in the semantics of the word itself, unlike the previous nickname (Preppie), which is addressed exclusively to young men, it is also used by a woman in relation to a man: “- Look here, Sparky"; "You look pretty too, Sparky." The heroine repeatedly calls her lover by a nickname, widely used in the United States to mean “a lively, energetic, pleasant person.”

It must be admitted that such English nicknames, which are not fixed in the language, are even half as common as in the Russian language, and they account for only 4% of all examples. It is characteristic that in Russian this type of address

used only by male characters, despite the fact that from the point of view

They are quite gender neutral, whereas in English they are used by interlocutors of both sexes.

Traditional affectionate addresses are somewhat different from the occasional common nouns (nicknames) used as addresses, although they are functionally similar to them. Let us emphasize once again that nicknames (unique or traditional) regularly replace the character’s personal name in addresses, while common nouns, firstly, are often fixed in the language, and, secondly, are used by the speaker in relation to a specific interlocutor very rarely, if more than once. These include appeals such as “sunshine”, “baby”, “baby”, “clever girl”, “beauty”, the occurrence of which in the dialogues of loving people is generally 11%. Actually, the meanings of the above units considered in this article have long been fixed in the language and recorded in dictionaries, which explains their special frequency in a variety of situations: “Baby, please tell me what you think about this?”, or “- Hello, Sunny!”, or “- Well, don’t, baby.”

The method of addressing a loved one using zoonyms in a diminutive form is also very common - not only “hare”, “bunny”, “bunny”, “fish”, “fish”, which have already become completely familiar to our ears, but even and “moth” can serve as a kind of name for a character that evokes tender feelings: “- I missed you, moth”, “- Are you ready, fish?”, “- No, bunny”, “- Bunny, don’t wait for me today lunch, I can stay late.”

It can also be noted that most often in the selected examples, addresses of this kind complete the remark, actually losing the “vocality” function, so that the emotive function of this address comes to the fore, although in many cases the transfer of the address to the phrase-initial position does not give a noticeable change in meaning [cf .: “Are you already asleep, bunny?” and “- Bunny, are you already sleeping?”]. As for addresses such as “beauty”, “clever girl” and others, correlated with the external features, abilities or character of a person, there is a tendency to use them with the possessive pronouns my or mine. Obviously, lines such as “Have you prepared dinner yet, beauty?” or “Good girl, I see you’re completely ready” sound somewhat rude and ironic, if not mockingly, and perhaps condescendingly, which is completely removed by combination with a possessive pronoun [cf.: “Have you already prepared dinner, my beauty?” or “My good girl, I see that you are completely ready”].

English names common nouns that loving heroes call each other, in our corpus, on the contrary, are represented to the same extent as in Russian, resulting in almost 10% of all examples, while they are distinguished by significant diversity, noticeably greater compared to the Russian language . These are baby, and beautiful tulip, and honey, and sweetheart, and kitty cat, and pet, and little muffin, and lemon pie and others. The most common and frequently encountered address is baby, which characterizes exclusively male speech: “- Come on, baby, drive into the net”; “- Poor baby!”; “-Get in the water, baby!” - although it must be admitted that the second of the above remarks can be equally used by a woman in relation to a man. The fact that the English consider some zoonyms to contain tender connotations and, therefore, to be words of endearment,

no longer seems strange, since the same trend can be traced in the Russian language, although the lexical units themselves that are part of such addresses in the two languages ​​differ: “- Your heart's very loud, I said You're not really frightened, are you, pet?"; "What's up, kitty cat?" An example in which the name of a flower is used as an address also seems quite understandable and in no way nationally specific, despite the absence of similar ones in our Russian material: “Can you give me a towel, beautiful tulip?” (cf. quite possible in Russian language appeal: “Beautiful rose, give me a towel, please”). An extensive group of words containing the seme “sweets” and used as addresses are represented by the English names of various confectionery products: “- Don’t feel bad, sugar pop”; "- Little muffin!"; “- Yes, lemon pie.” Such appeals as jellybean, sweetie pie, blueberry pie and others are also possible. Despite the absence of similar examples in the Russian part of the corpus, it can be assumed that such units as bun, donut, pie, chocolate, candy are also possible as addresses in Russian dialogues between two lovers. Related to them in meaning is the appeal sweetie pea, although this is not a confectionery product, the key in this appeal is sweetness: “- Hi sweetie pea. It’s me!” And finally, this group of names is completed by the already quite familiar pumpkin and honey-bunny: “- I love you, pumpkin! I love you, honey-bunny!

In a sense, a stable tendency for such naming appeals is their phrase-final position, in which the appellative function is erased, making it possible to highlight the emotive and contact-establishing functions. Another typical feature of common nouns used as addresses is their “masculinity” - in English, masculine characters call their girlfriends this way five times more often than female characters, while in Russian such address is exclusively masculine, and women do not use it at all in relation to their husbands and lovers.

Another widespread type of address to a loved one, accounting for more than 22% of the examined addresses in Russian, are substantivized adjectives, which are characterized by a certain stability in use and a variety of positions in statements. In Russian, the most frequent among them are “darling/darling” (this adjective is used in almost every third case), “dear/dear” (used with almost the same frequency, although slightly less) and, finally, “native” and “beloved” (every tenth request): “- Darling, what a wonderful view”, “- Bye, dear, see you in the evening”, “- Good morning, beloved.”

Note that replicas with such substantivized adjectives can be used both in expressive dialogues, when communicants discuss their relationships, give vent to emotions and confess their feelings to each other, and in “everyday” dialogues, in which communicants discuss everyday affairs: “- Beloved, what did you find in this, it’s just a drawing,” “Dear, tell me, won’t you stop loving me?”

The range of substantivized adjectives used by native English speakers when addressing a loved one is also quite narrow, despite their very, very high frequency (39%), these are dear, sweetie, sweet and darling. In addition, substantivized adjectives are presented in constructions with

heavy pronouns ‘my’, which we will turn to below. The most common of these is dear, followed by darling, sweetie and sweet. Adjectives as addresses can occupy both phrase-initial and phrase-final positions, depending on which function seems more important to the speaker - appellative or emotive: “- See you later, sweetie!”; “- Don’t worry. Just come here, darling"; “- Darling, I am here!”; “- Dear, can you help me with the pump?”

Interestingly, substantivized adjectives turned out to be the only form of address in Russian that is used equally by both men and women. Moreover, as the analyzed corpus of examples showed, women and men use the same adjectives, without demonstrating any fundamental gender preferences, as, for example, in the following two remarks: “Everything is fine, dear” and “Darling, what did you want should I tell you? In English, this form of address is also generally not marked in any way in terms of gender, with the exception of the adjective sweetie, which is addressed to women. In other words, with regard to substantivized adjectives as addresses, both languages ​​behave the same way, with the only exception that in English communication they are involved more intensively (1.7 times more often) than in Russian.

The latest form of address used by loving people is the combination of a common noun or substantivized adjective with the possessive pronouns my/my, which can appear in the following constructions:

Mine + noun (“- How stupid you are, my swallow!”);

Noun + mine (“- Listen, my chatterbox!”, “- My girl, I miss you so much!”, “- You’re not fair, my love!”);

My/mine + adjective (“- Let me help you, my dear”);

Adjective + my/my (“- I’m not angry at all, my dear”).

It seems that a construction with a possessive pronoun is to the greatest extent - compared to other types of addresses - capable of conveying the feelings and emotions of the speaker, his warm attitude towards the interlocutor, and it is this property that allows us to consider such constructions in their entirety in one section. In addition, precisely because of their expressiveness, they are used infrequently - in 7% of cases. As for gender preferences, there is a more frequent use of this construction in the speech of male characters. Female characters seem to be more restrained in such manifestations of their feelings and relatively rarely use possessive pronouns when addressing the men they love. However, it should be noted that in cases where women use such constructions, they serve to express increased expressiveness and often consist of a whole chain of several emotionally charged addresses, as, for example, in the following example: “- Darling... my darling, darling , I love you so much!" For male speech, it is typical to use addresses with moya in statements of a neutral nature, where the construction itself with a possessive pronoun serves exclusively as a marker for conveying a warm attitude.

A similar group of addresses in English, consisting of nouns and adjectives in combination with the possessive adjective my, is also not very extensive - such combinations give us just over 5% of examples. Constructions with a possessive adjective fall into three structural types:

My + noun: “- I hope, I brought your appetite, my girl”;

My + substantivized adjective: “- I am sorry, my dear”; “- It may seem strange for you, my darling, but we have been married without my having had time to explain to you so much you have to know about me”;

My + adjective + noun: “- I want to make love to you, my sweet baby”, “- Oh, Holly, my darling girl!”

It is curious that, as in the Russian language, in the vast majority of cases in English examples such an address is pronounced by a male character; only one example illustrates the use of this construction by a woman in a conversation with a man: “- We will do what Hadji suggests, my darling.” We can therefore conclude that with regard to this type of address both languages ​​show great similarity.

Finally, to express greater expressiveness in the Russian language, several addresses are often used, both nouns and adjectives in a wide variety of combinations: “- Dear, good, I thought you died,” “- Svetochka, dear, please explain to me how this could have happened?”, “- Lizonka, Lizok, Lizochek, what are you doing!”, “- Well, my dear girl!”, “- My girl, my love, please believe me!” In the English material, no similar “stringed” addresses one after another were found, and although one can hardly conclude from this that such structures are impossible in this language, it still seems that this reflects their great rarity compared to Russian.

Thus, we can conclude that in the dialogues of people who love each other in Russian, the preferred form of address is proper names with diminutive suffixes, substantivized adjectives and common nouns, which reflects the desire of the speakers to express their feelings and attitude towards the interlocutor as clearly as possible. It is interesting that men in such dialogues are more inclined to use expressive addresses than women - women do not call their lovers either by common nouns in a diminutive form (bunny, sunshine), or by affectionate nicknames (Iriska, Fox) and are three times less likely to Compared to men, they are addressed by name in a diminutive form. This result can be interpreted in two ways - as greater restraint among women in conversations with their beloved men, on the one hand, and as a reflection of stereotypical social roles, on the other, when a woman appears small, weak and defenseless, which is reflected in her treatment. Most likely, the situation is explained precisely by social stereotypes, since full names (as an address either to an equal or to a stronger one) are found twice as often in the remarks of women than in the remarks of men, while both of them almost equally resort to substantive adjectives that do not reflect any hierarchy in the relationship between communicants. It seems that the same dominant possessive position of men in Russian society is also expressed in the fact that they are three times more likely than women to address their girlfriends using the possessive pronoun mine.

The limitations of the morphological means of the English language involved in the formation of forms of personal names leads to the fact that interlocutors, if they address each other by name, are forced to repeat the same form, without being able to fundamentally modify it. It is quite possible that

The desire to diversify the forms of address to the interlocutor explains such an active use in English (in addition to proper names in full form) and substantive adjectives in comparison with Russian. I would also like to note that the high use of these essentially expressive units of the English language in the communication of close people leads to a noticeable erasure of the emotive meaning and makes them, rather, markers of closeness of relationships, rather than cordiality and/or love, in contrast to similar Russian adjectives.

In general, as the analysis showed, in both languages ​​the most actively used addresses in the dialogues of people who love each other are addresses by personal name in its various forms. However, there is a large discrepancy between languages ​​in the preferences of certain specific forms of names. Full names in Russian are used much less frequently than in English, and in cases where a proper name has an abbreviated version, calling with a full name is perceived as expressing the detachment, coldness of the interlocutor or as signaling the seriousness of the situation and conversation. In English, the full forms of personal names turn out to be one of the most frequent forms of address, being for the most part neutral, not introducing additional connotations to the statement.

Abbreviated (incomplete) forms of proper names in Russian are used in every fifth replica of the selected examples. The widespread use of this method of naming a loved one is due to its less formality and greater familiarity, which is quite appropriate in the conversation of close people. It should be noted that such addresses are perceived more as neutral than as conveying the speaker’s tender feelings. As for the English language, the use of abbreviated forms of personal names can be classified as neutral forms of address along with full names used in various situations, both when discussing everyday topics and in dialogues with more emotionally charged content.

The most common form of address in the Russian language is diminutive names, which are also characterized by a wide variety of variants of derivatives, for example: Lizok, Lizochek, Lizonka, Lizochka or: Nastyunysh, Nastenka, Nastyukha, Nastyusha, which is due to the wide possibilities of suffixal word formation in Russian language and the fact that different forms of the name convey a whole range of shades in the emotions and moods of the speaker. In English, the use of a shortened form of a name with diminutive suffixes is the least common form of address. This difference between languages ​​is quite expected, since it is due to the specific morphological structure of the languages ​​being compared.

A fundamental quantitative discrepancy between the two languages ​​under consideration is observed in relation to addresses in which substantivized adjectives are used. If Russian speakers resort to this form in every fifth case, then in the English language community such an address to a loved one turns out to be the most common and is used in every 2-3 cases. However, there are clear similarities in their use. In both languages, the list of such adjectives is narrow (three or four units) and in both languages, characters of both sexes used this form of nomination equally.

In terms of the use of nicknames and common nouns when addressing a loved one, the languages ​​are very close in quantitative terms. However

The variety of address options in English significantly exceeds Russian. It can also be noted that in English such appeals are more associatively associated with taste sensations (sweetness) (for example, blueberry pie, lemon pie, jellybean, sugar pop), whereas in Russian, appeals in the form of common nouns are more general in nature, correlating with various concepts and qualities of the addressee (sunny, baby, smart, beautiful).

Gender preferences in the use of certain forms of address by language demonstrate that in this respect both languages ​​show more similarities than differences. Both English-speaking and Russian-speaking men prefer more emotionally rich variants of address - diminutive forms of proper names, common nouns, as well as constructions with a possessive pronoun (adjective - in English terminology). This trend seems to reflect the social roles of men and women in both cultures (dominant in the case of the former and subordinate in the case of the latter), as well as the possessive attitudes inherent in the man as the head of the home and family. The hierarchy of social roles is also manifested in the fact that most female characters address their lovers by calling him by his full or most neutral name, which reflects a respectful attitude towards the interlocutor. It is interesting, however, that nicknames, although equally little used in both cultures, have demonstrated their own specific tendency for each language - in Russian only men use nicknames, in English, on the contrary, only women.

literature

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